Medicinal plants have been a part of our lives since our existence and have been used for various medicinal purposes since ancient times[1]. The majority of human populations in developing countries rely on traditional medicines but the practice of traditional medicine is not the same across the world[2]. The enormous importance of medicinal plants in the health sector is undeniable. The assurance on medicinal plants is partly owing to the high cost of modern drugs, inaccessibility of modern health institutions and due to cultural acceptability of the system[3]. The study of traditional plant use is a field of growing interest to research scientist and pharmaceutical companies looking to develop new and more effective drugs. Pharmaceutical companies and health-inclined institutions could draw possible novel plant resources in the quest of manufacturing medicines[4]. The Department of Health has been promoting products of medicinal plants as alternative medicines. Their low costs and effectiveness will help many Filipino families, announced the DOH secretary, as they have been a subject of “extensive research by Filipino scientists.”[5]. There is work of ethnobotanical studies worldwide and it is continually increasing. Despite of many ethnobotanical studies conducted only few are pursued and documented in the Philippines. Some of those are the tribal groups of: Pinatubo Negritos, Tasadays in Mindanao, Itawes of Cagayan and Ibaloi of Benguet province[6].

Documenting indigenous medicinal practices is a step of conserving it and give as new knowledge and discovery. And documenting indigenous health practices gives bits of knowledge into how human communities have adjusted their local environments and can guide culturally suitable therapeutic care[7, 8]. The Umayamnon tribe is known for their fierce reputation and is regarded as warlike and skilled in forest survival. According to the provincial government website[9], the Umayamnon people are indigenous Lumads residing near the headwaters of the Pulangi River in Bukidnon Province and the Umayam River in Agusan del Sur. Unlike other tribes, they wear distinct headdresses adorned with beads and are highly skilled in crafting bead accessories such as necklaces (ginakit) and bracelets (binuklad). Their livelihood primarily relies on upland farming at below-subsistence levels, fishing in rivers, and gathering non-timber forest products. The tribe believes in a Supreme Being who created and governs everything. A notable cultural practice is their frequent chewing of betel nuts and the filing of their teeth to uniform lengths, which are then blackened. This practice serves both medicinal and decorative purposes. The blackened teeth hold cultural significance, symbolizing a unique human trait, as they believe only monkeys have white teeth.[9].

Nowadays, indigenous people existence is diminishing and the knowledge about their tribe and practices especially in medicine is also decreasing that sadly someday the young generations would not know their importance and contributions to the field of medicine. But through documentation the knowledge about them will be preserved and be able to be used for future applications.

Description of the Study Area

The municipality of Cabanglasan, is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Bukidnon, Philippines (Figure 1). According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 33,997 people. Cabanglasan is geographically located between east longitude 125 degrees 27 minutes and north latitude 8 degrees and 3 minutes. It is located at the eastern part of the province of Bukidnon, bounded in the north and west by the City of Malaybalay and the south by the Municipality of San Fernando, and in the east by the province of Agusan del Sur. It has a total area of 24,330 hectares (60,100 acres), of which 38% is Alienable and Disposable (A&D) land and 62% is timberland. It has 15 barangays, 5 of which are situated within timberland namely; Freedom, Mandahican, Mauswagon, Jasaan, and Cananga-an. Five barangays, namely; Anlugan, Cabanglasan proper, Iba, Mandaing and Dalacutan are located within A&D land while the remaining 5 barangays such as; Cabulohan, Capinonan, Imbatug, Paradise and Mauswagon are located within both timberland and A&D. It occupies 2.52% of the total provincial area of Bukidnon and 0.74% of the regional area[10].

Figure 1. Map of Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines[11]

Ethnobotanical Data Collection

A survey was conducted through a series of interviews with the healers and residents, a total of 110 respondents, ages 20 and above, was interviewed in the selected barangays in Cabanglasan, Bukidnon. A questionnaire was used in collecting records about the medicinal plants used by the Umayamnon tribe. The questionnaire consists of the demographics (age, gender, source of livelihood, etc.) and ethnobotanical medicinal plants and their uses information. The interview conducted via informal dialog to communicate them impulsively without feeling pressure. The records gathered about the plant would include the plant’s family, common name, local (Umayamnon) names, the phase of the plant used, the mode of practice, the application and its medicinal uses. Pictures of the plants were taken during a short field walk with the locals in the area.

Taxonomic Identification of the Plants

The plants were identified up to its scientific name using the Dictionary of the Philippine Plant Names (Volume 1)[12], Dictionary of the Philippine Island[13], and by online references[14]. Moreover, some of the plants were further verified by an expert botanist.

Data Analysis

The total number of medicinal plants, total number of botanical families, and number of species for each family and the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) were computed.

The RFC helped analyze which plant is reported as therapeutic, and showed the local importance of each species of the medicinal plants, and computed as:

Where:

Fe = the number of informants mentioning the use of the species N = total number of informants participating in the survey

The most mentioned method of preparation and application, the most common utilize plant, and growth forms were also determined. The determination on the most utilized plant part for their herbal preparations is very important since its asses if the survival and continuity of the medicinal plants within the area are maintained by the locals.

Conservation Status

The Conservation status of the plant species recorded was determined based on the International Union for the Conservation of nature (IUCN 2019)[15] and DENR Administrative Orders (DAO 2017)[16].

The recorded data of plants is presented in terms of their scientific name, habit of growth, family name, common name or local name (Table 1). There were 50 species recorded belonging to 31 families. Among the 50 species recorded, there were 20 trees, 16 herbs, nine (9) shrubs, three (3) grasses and two (2) vines. 

Table 1. List of medicinal plants recorded in Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines

Among the 50 species recorded there were 20 (40%) trees, 16 (32%) herbs, nine (18%) shrubs, three (6%) grasses, and two (4%) vines (Figure 2). The highest percentage of the medicinal plants recorded was obtained from the trees which have a total of 40%. This proves that trees are common in the area since it is hilly and mountainous. A similar study of having trees as a most used or dominant source of medicine is reported by Asigbaase[17]. Moreover, since the area of the tribal people of Cabanglasan is far from the city their source of modern medicine is scarce, thus, most of the tribal people are still making use of traditional healthcare practices.

Figure 2. Frequency distribution of the habit of growth of the medicinal plants recorded

Based on the information given by the Umayamnon’s of Cabanglasan Bukidnon Philippines. The recorded medicinal plants and their corresponding method of preparation and application are shown in Table 2. The diseases or ailments that these plants used to treat are the following: Urinary Tract Infection, stomach pains, wounds, vomiting, high blood pressure, Cold, burns, headache, fever, boils, avoid flatulence to a new born baby, Over fatigue, Teething baby, body pain, measles, tonsillitis, diabetes, to a mother that just give birth to avoid fatigue, diarrhea,  wart  and  fracture. These ailments will be cured using different parts of a plant. Umayamnon’s believe that using herbal plants is infective since this is what they use for a long time, and they been cured by using those plants mention. The methods and preparation used by the Umayamnon’s in Cabanglasan Bukidnon are decoction, infusion, extraction and poultice (Table 2). The usual method of preparation they used is boiling the plant part usually leaves with water and by oral drinks the juice. For immediate treatment of cuts or wounds, either the leaves crushed, or stems scraped, and juice is extracted were used and administered topically externally. Decoction is also a popular method used by other tribe like the Higaonon tribe of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines according to Olowa et al.[6] and the Indigenous Ati Negrito in the Philippines Ong et al.[18]. Decoctions are aqueous preparations of plant parts boiled in water for 15–20 min until the water volume is halved.

Table 2. List of medicinal plants used by the Umayamnon tribe in Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines with their corresponding method of preparation and application.

Decoctions are prepared by breaking the plant parts, its either leaves, stem or roots into small pieces before soaking in each amount of water and the water should cover the plant parts, then the container is covered[19]. Decoction provides a few benefits, including increased starch conversion, effective mashing of poorly modified malts, better hot break formation, and reduction of hot-side aeration[20]. On the other hand, infusion is the process of steeping (soaking) herbs in water until the water absorbs the oils and flavors, then drinking the liquid for the taste or for the medicinal value[21]. However, a disadvantage of infusion and decoctions in water is that a large quantity of inactive compounds that has no therapeutic value is extracted[22]. Moreover, extraction in addition is a process that aims to extract certain components present in plants.

It is a solid/liquid separation operation: a solid object (the plant) is placed in contact with a fluid (the solvent)[23] while a poultice is the direct application of the fresh herb to the skin. Poultices, compresses, and powders are primarily used for short term for wounds, bruises, sprains, or strains. Great care is guaranteed to make sure that contaminated herbal material is not put into or on any wound. In early stages of wound healing, moist herbal compresses will generally work best, provided they are changed many times a day[24].

The most common methods of preparation recorded are presented in Figure 3. There are seven (7) methods applied by the tribe in preparing their medicine and these are decoction, extraction, poultice, infusion, direct eating and crush/scrape. A total of thirty 30 (50%) for decoction, eight (13%) for extraction, seven (12%) for poultice, three (5%) for infusion, nine (15%) for crush/scrape and a total of three (5%) for direct eating/drink. These methods were also noted in the study by Olowa et al.[6], Mbelebele et al.[7] and Adeniyi et al.[19]. Decoction has the highest frequency which could be done by placing the plant part to boil water. They can be absorbed quickly and have the strongest action of all the traditional types of preparation. The result percentage proves that decoction is the most effective method on preparing medicinal plants. Decoctions were a primary method of therapy described in the ancient text Shanghan Lun[25]; for many of the conditions described in that text, there were variations of formulas that corresponded to each manifestation of the disease, and to the way the disease changed. Although duration of therapy was rarely indicated, it was evident that the decoctions were intended to be used for a day or a few days, and that the patient was expected to be in a different status within a few days according to Subhuti Dharmananda Ph.D[26]. Then the method of infusion and direct eating/drink has the lowest frequency value. Extraction, poultice and crush/scrape also have a lowest frequency compared to decoction.

Figure 3. Frequency distribution of the common method of preparation of the medicinal plants used by the Umayamnon in Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines.

The frequency distribution of Medicinal Plant parts used by Umayamnon Tribe in Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines is presented in Figure 4. The plant parts used by the Umayamnon’s to make herbal medicine are the leaves, roots, bark, fruit, stem, flower and sap/fluid from the plant. Among the plant parts, twenty seven (27) or fifty percent (50%) they used are leaves, fourteen (14) or twenty five percent (25%) roots, two (2) or four percent (4%) bark, seven (7) or thirteen percent (13%) fruit, one (1) or two percent (2%) stem, also one (1) or two percent (2%) flower and a total of two (2) or four percent (4%) they used are sap/fluid from the plant. It is also renowned that defined medicinal plants require more than one part used.

Figure 4. Frequency distribution of medicinal plant parts used by Umayamnon Cabanglasan

Bukidnon, Philippines.

The leaves are the most used part of the enumerated medicinal plants with a citation frequency of fifty percent (50%). Similar result where leaves is the most used plant part in making herbal medicine was cited in the previous study of Tantiado[27] and of Balangcod et al.[28]. Phytochemical analyses on the study of phytochemical components of leaves of Annona muricata for instance by Agu et al.[29] and Coria-Téllez et al.[30] shown that the leaves of Annona muricata are rich in protein, starch, and carbohydrates as well as such known antioxidants such as flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and polyphenols. These phytochemical components are being used for its medical and therapeutic value. Using leaves is more frequent rather than using roots and bark, it helps in protecting and maintaining wild populations and their habitats and it ensures the sustainability of the plants to grow in the area in order to cater the needs of the rural populace for medicinal plants[31]. A phytochemical screening and anthelmintic activity of methanolic extract of Imperata cylindrica roots was conducted by Parvathy et al.[32], and it showed that it has a carbohydrate, glycosides, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids and steroids compounds and this compound proves that this plant has a therapeutic value. And a phytochemical screening of Psidium guajava bark and in vitro antioxidant activity of psidium guajava bark tannins was also examined by Aziz et al.[33]. The result of the study showed the presence of compound Flavonoids, Alkaloids, Tannins, Proteins, Carbohydrates, Saponins, Glycosides and Phenols which also have a possibility of having a therapeutic value. If talking about the method of collecting the plant parts like root cutting and bark striping can be very harmful or a big threat to a plant survival. The high utilization of roots may put many species at risk of extinction because of damage inflicted on them while uprooting them[34]. Frequency distribution of the Method of Application of Medicinal Plants used by the Umayamnon Tribe in Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines can be shown in Figure 5. A total of thirty-eight (38) or sixty nine percent (69%) were applied orally and seventeen (17) or thirty one percent (31%) were applied externally. The highest percentage is by taking orally a route of administration where a substance is taken through the mouth. External application can be done either by massage or applying it directly to the affected area. Generally, Oral administration is the most frequently used route of administration because of its simplicity and convenience, which improve patient compliance, and the bioavailability of drugs administered orally varies greatly Hirota et al.[35]. Taking orally or externally needed a limitation or needed a right dosage, it’s important to follow the right method when taking medicine to avoid any medication mishaps.

Figure 5. Frequency distribution of the method of application of medicinal plants used by the Umayamnon in Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines.

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)[15] status and DENR Administrative Order 2017 (DAO)[16] status of Medicinal Plants Used by the Umayamnon Tribe in Cabanglasan Bukidnon, Philippines can be shown in Table 3. Among 50 medicinal plants recorded, a total of 38 plants is not yet evaluated (NE) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, nine (9) plants are least concern (LC) and a total of three (3) plants are data deficient (DD). The plant recorded as vulnerable by DAO is Calamus ornatus, the rest are not recorded, it means most of the plants collected are not threatened. The plants recorded as least concern are the Blumea balsamifera, Mimosa pudica, Mentha arvensis L., Vitex negundo, Sandoricum koetjape, Ficus septica, Psidium guajava, Citrus maxima and Capsicum annuum. Areca catechu, Carica papaya and Ipomoea batatas (L.) are the plants found to be data deficient, and the rest of the plants are not yet evaluated. Majority of the plants are not yet evaluated. It means that there is insufficient data regarding the assessment of the conservation status of the plant

Table 3. List of medicinal plant species with conservation status assessed based on IUCN 2019 and DENR Administrative Order 2017 (DAO).

Medicinal plants recorded among 50 species there were twenty (20) trees, and it is 40% of the total population. This proves that trees are common in the area since it is hilly and mountainous. Decoction is the most widely used method in preparing the medicinal plants this proves that decoction is the most effective method on preparing medicinal plants since it can be absorbed quickly and have the strongest action of all of the traditional types of preparation. The most used plant part of the enumerated medicinal plants with a citation frequency of fifty percent (50%) is the leaves. Using leaves is more frequent than using roots and bark, it helps in protecting and maintaining wild populations and their habitats and it ensures the sustainability of the plants to grow in the area to cater the needs of the rural populace for medicinal plants. Most of the medicinal plants are applied internally and is taken orally compared to external application since oral administration is the most frequently used route of administration because of its simplicity and convenience, which improve patient compliance, and the bioavailability of drugs administered orally varies greatly. But it’s important to follow the right method when taking medicine to avoid any medication mishaps orally or externally. The following are the diseases or ailments that these plants used to treat : Urinary Tract Infection, stomach pains, wounds, vomiting, high blood pressure, Cold, burns, headache, fever, boils, avoid flatulence to a new born baby, Over fatigue, Teething baby, body pain, measles, tonsillitis, diabetes, to a mother that just give birth to avoid fatigue,  diarrhea,  wart  and  fracture. It shows that Umayamnon’s encountered a lot of diseases in the area.

Herbal medicine is proven effective by the indigenous people since this is the only medicine they been using ever since for the reason of they are far from the city, and they also can’t afford. Herbal medicine is much cheaper compared to synthetic medicine, but it is safer when used or prepared properly. Through the help of documenting the herbal medicine used by the IP’s a lot of study conducted and proves that plants are the major source of medicine. An individual should be responsible and careful when using these plants as medicine because there is a possibility that it complicates diseases when you’re not doing the proper way of preparing it.

This study documented fifty (50) plant species belonging to twenty-nine (29) families. The Malvaceae family was the most utilized, with six (6) species, including Urena lobata Linn., Sida rhombifolia L., Gossypium, Waltheria americana Linn., Tilia americana, and Corchorus olitorius. Leaves were the most used plant part, primarily for treating ailments such as fever, cough, headache, stomachache, and fatigue. The most common preparation methods were decoction, crushing/scraping, and extraction, with oral administration being the prevalent application method. Using leaves for herbal remedies ensures sustainability, as it avoids the harm to plants associated with harvesting roots and bark.

Forty percent (40%) of the recorded medicinal plants were trees, reflecting the hilly and forested nature of the area. This abundance of trees makes medicinal resources readily accessible to the local population.

Natural products derived from plants underscore the intricate relationship between humans and their environment. The historical use of medicinal plants has laid the foundation for modern drug discovery, with plant-based medicines continuing to hold significance despite advances in synthetic drugs. This study highlights the critical role of medicinal plants in indigenous healthcare practices and emphasizes the need to document and preserve this knowledge.

The findings encourage further research into medicinal plants, potentially leading to the discovery of new pharmaceutical compounds that could benefit the healthcare industry and broader society. By documenting indigenous healthcare practices and identifying medicinal plants, this study contributes to conserving valuable traditional knowledge and natural resources. Such efforts are crucial to ensuring this heritage is passed down to future generations, preventing the loss of invaluable cultural and scientific information.

Acknowledgement

This research would not be possible without the support, inspiration, and guidance of specific individuals who helped bring this study to success.

• To Dr. Lilybeth F. Olowa, Dr. Olive A. Amparado, and Professor Jaime Q. Guihawan for the assistance on the manuscript draft and data analysis.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest

No funding sources

The study was approved by the Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City, 9200 Philippines

1. Jamshidi-Kia, F., Z. Lorigooini, and H. Amini-Khoei, "Medicinal Plants: Past History and Future Perspective," J Herbmed Pharmacol 7.1 (2018): pp. 1-7. doi: https://doi.org/10.15171/jhp.2018.01.

2. Bodeker, G., and B. Graz, Traditional Medicine 10th ed. Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases (2020).

3. Davis, C. C., and P. Choisy, "Medicinal Plants Meet Modern Biodiversity Science," Curr Biol 34.4 (2024): pp. R158-R173. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.038.

4. Hao, D. C., and P. G. Xiao, "Pharmaceutical Resource Discovery from Traditional Medicinal Plants: Pharmacophylogeny and Pharmacophylogenomics," Chin Herb Med 12.2 (2020): pp. 104-117. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chmed.2020.03.002.

5. Lacanilao, F., "Research on Medicinal Plants," Philippines Today (accessed Dec 25, 2024), www.philippinestoday.net/archives/238.

6. Olowa, L. F., M. A. J. Torres, E. C. Aranico, and C. G. Demayo, "Medicinal Plants Used by the Higaonon Tribe of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines," Advances in Environmental Biology 6.4 (2012): pp. 1442-1449.

7. Mbelebele, Z., L. Mdoda, S. S. Ntlanga, Y. Nontu, and L. S. Gidi, "Harmonizing Traditional Knowledge with Environmental Preservation: Sustainable Strategies for the Conservation of Indigenous Medicinal Plants (IMPs) and Their Implications for Economic Well-Being," Sustainability 16.14 (2024): p. 5841. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16145841.

8. Bodeker, G., and K. Kariippanon, "Traditional Medicine and Indigenous Health in Indigenous Hands," Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Global Public Health (2020). doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.013.155.

9. "Umayamnon," Bukidnon.gov.ph (accessed Dec 25, 2024), https://bukidnon.gov.ph/umayamnon/.

10. "Cabanglasan - DTI," CMCI.dti.gov.ph (accessed Dec 25, 2024), https://cmci.dti.gov.ph/lgu-profile.php?lgu=Cabanglasan.

11. "Cabanglasan, Bukidnon," Ed. (2024).

12. Madulid, D. A., A Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names (Bookmark, 2001).

13. Merrill, E. D., A Dictionary of the Plant Names (1903).

14. Costea, M., J. Barcelona, D. Nickrent, K. C. Nixon, and P. Pelser, Phytoimages (2014), www.phytoimages.siu.edu.

15. "International Union for Conservation of Nature Annual Report," (2020).

16. DENR Administrative Order No. 15 of 2017 (Guidelines on Public Participation under the Philippine Environmental Impact System) (2017).

17. Asigbaase, M., et al., "Ethnobotanical and Ethnopharmacological Survey of Medicinal Tree Species Used in the Treatment of Diseases by Forest-Fringe Communities of Southwestern Ghana," Heliyon 10.1 (2024): p. e23645. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23645.

18. Ong, H. G., and Y. D. Kim, "Herbal Therapies and Social-Health Policies: Indigenous Ati Negrito Women's Dilemma and Reproductive Healthcare Transitions in the Philippines," Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2015 (2015): p. 491209. doi: https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/491209.

19. Adeniyi, A., et al., "Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants from Ghana; Confirmation of Ethnobotanical Uses, and Review of Biological and Toxicological Studies on Medicinal Plants Used in Apra Hills Sacred Grove," J Herb Med 14 (2018): pp. 76-87. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2018.02.001.

20. Bitwell, C., S. S. Indra, C. Luke, and M. K. Kakoma, "A Review of Modern and Conventional Extraction Techniques and Their Applications for Extracting Phytochemicals from Plants," Sci Afr 19 (2023): e01585. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2023.e01585.

21. Etheridge, C. J., and E. Derbyshire, "Herbal Infusions and Health," Nutr Food Sci 50.5 (2019): pp. 969-985. doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/nfs-08-2019-0263.

22. Hidayat, R., and W. Patricia, "Methods of Extraction: Maceration, Percolation and Decoction," Eureka Herba Indonesia 2.1 (2021): pp. 73-79. doi: https://doi.org/10.37275/ehi.v2i1.15.

23. Mahmood, M., "Plant Extraction and Fractionation v1," (2023), doi: https://doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.q26g7y6bqgwz/v1.

24. Shedoeva, A., D. Leavesley, Z. Upton, and C. Fan, "Wound Healing and the Use of Medicinal Plants," Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2019 (2019): p. 2684108. doi: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2684108.

25. Riliu, H., and Z. Mengdan, "A Skopos Theory-based Study of Translation Principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine Decoctions," J Lit Art Studies 11.11 (2021): pp. 1-5. doi: https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5836/2021.11.009.

26. Dharmananda, P. D., I. f. T. Medicine: Dosage and Form of Herbs Decoctions, Dried Decoctions, Powders, Pills, Etc. (n.d.).

27. Tantiado, R. G., "Survey on Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants in Iloilo, Philippines," Int J Bio-Sci Bio-Tech 4.4 (2012): pp. 1-5.

28. Balangcod, T. D., and K. D. Balangcod, "Ethnomedicinal Plants in Bayabas, Sablan, Benguet Province, Luzon, Philippines," Electron J Biol 11.3 (2015): pp. 63-73.

29. Agu, K. C., and P. N. Okolie, "Proximate Composition, Phytochemical Analysis, and in Vitro Antioxidant Potentials of Extracts of Annona muricata (Soursop)," Food Sci Nutr 5.5 (2017): pp. 1029-1036. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.498.

30. Coria-Téllez, A. V., et al., "Annona muricata: A Comprehensive Review on Its Traditional Medicinal Uses, Phytochemicals, Pharmacological Activities, Mechanisms of Action and Toxicity," Arab J Chem 11.5 (2018): pp. 662-691. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.01.004.

31. Gruyal, G., "Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Residents in Northern Surigao del Sur, Philippines," Nat Prod Chem Res 2.4 (2014): pp. 1-5. doi: https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6836.1000140.

32. S, T. S., P. N. G., R. R., V., and K. P. Rahate, "Phytochemical Screening and Anthelmintic Activity of Methanolic Extract of Imperata cylindrica," Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 4.1 (2012): pp. 1-5.

33. Aziz, N., M. Rafiqkhan, and D. B. Menon, "Phytochemical Screening of Psidium guajava Bark and In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Psidium guajava Bark Tannins," Asian J Pharm Clin Res 7.3 (2014): pp. 1-5.

34. dos Santos, L. L., et al., "Techniques for Collecting and Processing Plant Material and Their Application in Ethnobotany Research," (2013): pp. 1-5. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8636-7_11.

35. Hirota, J., and S. Shimizu, "Routes of Administration," The Lab Mouse (2012): pp. 709-725.