Despite progress, road traffic deaths continue to rise, with an annual 1.35 million fatalities. Road traffic injuries are now the leading killer of children and young people aged 05-29 years. Globally of all road traffic deaths, pedestrians and cyclists account for 26% and motorcycle riders and passengers account for 28%. This risk of a road traffic death remains three times higher in low-income countries than in high-income countries, with rates highest in Africa (26.6 per 100,000 population). Every year, over 39,000 Nigerians die from road crashes. In the 2018 global status report on road safety, the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated road traffic fatalities in Nigeria at 39,802, while deaths stood at 21.4 [1].

Road traffic accidents statistics in Nigeria reveal a serious and growing problem with absolute fatality rate and causality figure rising rapidly. The majority of developing countries, accident occurrence and released deaths are relative to either population or number of vehicles. Ironically, in Nigeria, studies have indicated that an increasing number of accidents [2-4] has accompanied better facilities in terms of good quality and standardised roads. This is contrary to the trends in countries where even the level of the sophisticated road network and the volume of vehicular traffic are higher [5]. Nigeria loses about 80 billion naira annually to road accidents, of all subjects that are involved in road traffic accidents in Nigeria, 29.1 percent suffer disability, and 13.5 percent are unable to return to work [5-7]. 

According to the latest WHO data published in 2018; Road Traffic Accidents Deaths in Nigeria reached 40,061 or 2.07% of total deaths. The age adjusted death rate 29.50 per 100,000 of population ranks Nigeria 41 in the world (Table 1).

One of the negative externalities of heavy reliance on road transportation as a means of movement of people and goods is road traffic accident (RTA). It is not an exaggeration to say that RTAs place an enormous financial burden, not only on families of victims, but also on society at large and the governments. It is from the foregoing perspective that inferences can be drawn to conclude that road traffic accidents affect economic growth in any given country such as Nigeria. 

World Bank, finds that reducing road traffic deaths and injuries could result in substantial long-term income gains for low and middle income countries. The report introduces a new methodology to calculate the economic impact of road safety and analyses. While there is general recognition of road traffic injuries and fatalities, little is known about the link between road traffic injuries and economic growth. The report quantifies how investments in road safety are also an investment in human capita. Countries that do not invest in road safety could miss out on anywhere between 7 and 22% in potential per capital GDP growth over a 24 year period. This requires policy makers to promise proven investment in road safety. The cost of in action is more than 1.25 million deaths a year globally, diminished productivity and reduced growth prospects.

Listen to these quotations: 

• “9 people feared dead in multiple accident”

Table 1: Road Traffic Accidents Death Rate per 100,000 (Age Standardized)

Source: WHO, 2018

•  “bloody Christmas; 187 people killed in road accidents”

• “3 die in Lagos-Ibadan expressway accident”

• “trailer crushes 10 to death in Ondo State”

• “13 killed in Kwara road accident”

• “36 persons feared dead as bus plunges into Alcaeze river in Ebony”

• “13 die on Benin-Ore road”

These are just a sample of the frequent horror-stricken headlines in our newspapers which many tend to dismiss as “oh one of those things”. Not until it happens to a very close relation like son,   daughter,   wife,  husband, father,  mother, 

Table 2: Road Traffic crash report from 1960-2019 in Nigeria

Source: FRSC, 2021

brother or sister do most people really appreciate the magnitude and seriousness of the mental agony, the sufferings, and the losses (particularly of family pillars and breadwinners) involved in each of over 940,659 reported road accidents, with over 318,000 reported fatalities and over 510,000 reported injured people that on the average, have annually been greeting our national highways over the past 59 years (1960-2019) (Table 2).

This phenomenon has been of serious concern to me and indeed to many Nigerians, over the past two decades and 

Figure 1: Epidemiological Model of Road Traffic Accident 

Source: Jegede, 1989, p. 68 and Atubi 2006, P. 49)

a half. Road traffic accident situation in Nigeria has been alarming and particularly disturbing ever since the first auto crash was recorded. Nigeria’s effort at tackling the challenges of safety on our roads commenced in 1913 with the promulgation of the first transport law-the highway (motor traffic) ordinance whose main objective was “reducing the incidents of road traffic accidents to the bearest minimum” in the southern protectorate”. A nation-wide ordinance followed in 1916 with the amalgamation of the northern and southern protectorate in 1914. Subsequently in 1940 and 1945, the country-wide law was reviewed and adapted along the United Kingdom Road Traffic Act of 1930. Other legislations thereafter included the Road Traffic Act, the federal highway act, the law of carriage, and the federal road safety commission Decree of 1988, which was later amended in 2007. But despite the several revisions of the transport laws and notwithstanding the multiplicity of agencies, with states having their traffic management agencies, the road traffic crashes kept increasing all over the country.

Conceptual Framework

The Epidemiological Model of Road Traffic Accident

It was developed and used in medical services but was modified and used in accident study. Road traffic accident is a multifaceted phenomenon with diverse causal factors. The effectiveness of any road safety measures hinges squarely not only on the appreciation of the complex nature  and multi-dimensional aspects of road accident occurrence but also on how the numerous causal factors can be manipulated to reduce traffic accidents on the roads. Road Traffic Accidents as a transportation problem is complex because of the interactive nature of the system and components involved However, the road traffic system is made up of three components viz:

• The road user:             Human 

• The vehicle  :               Mechanical 

• The road       :               Environment 

The collective action of these various components is a system where each is functioning independently so as to complement the functions of the others in order to realize a desired result. Any defect or malfunctioning in one of the three components may result in a defect in the entire system, which may lead to a breakdown and could cause road traffic accident. Figure 1 depicts what Epidemiological model is all about.

According to the epidemiological concept the “Host” is the person or persons involved in the road traffic accident. The human factor is superimposed in other traffic accident causation factors because he is the one who designs, develops and maintain roads and vehicles, hence human factor is the prime mover of Road  Traffic Accident (RTA). The “AGENT” is the motor vehicle while the “ENVIRONMENT” is the sum of physical and social conditions that contribute in one way or another to the occurrence of the traffic accident. In as much as these factors jointly or individually contribute to road traffic accidents on our roads. 

The influence of each of these three components could be analytically determined through many ways. What readily comes to mind when considering traffic accidents on our roads are:

• What is the average mechanical condition of motor vehicles that can guarantee reduced traffic accidents on highways

• To what extent has the condition of our roads contributed to road traffic accident prevention

• To what extent has the consumption of alcohol and other drugs affected  road traffic accident prevention

Attempt should be focused on these and many other questions in order to obtain useful clues that could form the basis of road traffic accident prevention.

Phases of Accident

Accident as we all know are caused and as much they don’t just happen, the critical evaluation of accident phenomenon clearly indicate three specific phases. The three phases is the total consumption of an accident at any point when it is recorded. The phases as a matter of fact are interwoven and occur sequently after each other. These phases are pre-accident phase, the accident phase, and the post-accident phase of highway safety.

• Pre-Accident Phase: The pre-crash phase groups together all preventive or precautionary measures aimed at controlling or abating road accidents. Under this phase, falls all the contributory factors like the environment, the vehicle, the road users/persons, and the preventive or precautionary measures taken to normally avert accident. It is an indication of several conditions that are capable of causing accident. In other words, it implies all situations and circumstances preceding the occurrence of an accident. We can as well evaluate certain conditions that are capable of causing an accident before they are recorded. In short, this phase is concerned with accident avoidance

• The Accident Phase: Once the pre-crash phase cannot be averted, the crash phase is the actual occurrence of the accident, when the mechanical device is involved in actual collision resulting in an accident, the type of outcome from the accident to the victim also belongs to this phase. Similarly, is the spot of which the accident occurred and the time of the day, which are all major indices of the crash phase. Research had demonstrated that up to 80% reduction in deaths of drivers and passengers can be achieved through the use of safety belts alone. The focus of this second phase, therefore, is on injury prevention

The following actions should be taken during road traffic accident:

Assess the Situation

• Locate the victim 

• Examine the victims quickly 

• Prevent further risk of fire, explosion, road traffic 

• Keep the vehicle stationary 

• Switch off engine, fuel and battery connection

• Display warning signals 

• Send for help 

Care of the Victim

• Rescue the trapped casualties 

• Look for breathing, heart function and consciousness 

• Care for unconscious cases first 

• Take care of bleeding and fracture

• Use car first aid kit if available 

• Transport casualty to nearest hospital

Care of the Vehicle

• Keep the vehicles immobilized and in safety custody 

• Protect the property from damage 

• Take help of local people

• Inform police

• Post-Accident Phase: The post-crash phase can be described as the process of evaluating or assessing the consequences of road accidents. Such evaluation is based on socio-economic, environmental and political effects, using quantifiable and qualitative analytical tools. In this phase, we are concerned with saving those who need not die, with reducing hospitalization, permanent disability and unnecessary deaths. Indeed, the focus is on accessibility to adequate and prompt emergency communications, transportation and medical care, that determine the livelihood of the continuing survival of the survivors of the crashes. Therefore, the concern of this phase is on severity reduction, which would include the availability and competence of ambulance drivers and attendants in handling victims at accident scenes and the receptivity of hospital staff to accident victims who are not accompanied by police officers.

The causes of accidents has been listed to include speeding (4-5 percent), driving under the influence of alcohol and other psychoactive substances, non-use of motorcycle helmets, seat belts and child restraints, distracted driving, unsafe road infrastructure, unsafe vehicles, inadequate post-crash care, and inadequate law enforcement of traffic laws [8-11].

Virtually all other causes are prevalent in Nigeria, especially, unsafe road infrastructure. Most of the road networks are in disrepair and can best be described as roads to hell where human lives are wasted daily. Given the humongous lives that are wasted on our roads across the country with the attendant socio-economic losses, all stakeholders must join forces to make Nigeria roads safe.

We need new traffic safety strategies. These requires a paradigm shift, a change in the ways that risks are measured and potential safety strategies are evaluated/audited [12-14]. Reducing road traffic accidents is a global challenge and succeeding will require the involvement of multiple stakeholders at the global, national and community levels [15 -16]

Frequency of Road Traffic Accidents in Nigeria

In Nigeria an average of 12 people died daily in 2019 road accidents crashes. In all 4,163 people were killed in crashes during the period. However, 59,724 people were involved in the road crashes in which 14,425 vehicles were involved, while 27,408 were injured in the accidents and 27,523 escaped without injuries [17].

The World Health Organisation’s 2018 Global status report on road safety shows that one out of every four road crashes that occur in Africa are reported in Nigeria. Every four hours, no fewer than two lives are lost on Nigerian roads. And every year about 20,000 of the 11,654 million vehicles in the country are involved in accidents [8,17].

The number of lives lost to road traffic accidents from January 2013 to June 2018 are as follows: 2013 – 5,539; 2014 – 4,430; 2015 – 5,400; 2016 – 5,053; 2017 – 5,049; 2018 – 5,449. This tally indicates that in 2018, no fewer than 126 lives had been wasted in road crashes. Summation of these figures gives a heartrending total of 28,195 lives crushed in 68 months, an equivalent of 415 lives per months, 14 persons day, and two lives every four hours. This makes Nigeria one of the countries with very high road fatalities in the world. 

There were 33.7 deaths per 100,000 people in Nigeria every year, making Nigeria one of the countries with the highest number of fatality in Africa. Zimbabwe has the worst road fatality in the world with 74.5 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants. The world average is 17.4 Africa is 26.6, and according to the International Transport Forum (ITF), road safety annual report for 2018 while Norway has the least road fatality with two deaths per 100,000 inhabitants [17].

The number of registered vehicles in Nigeria in 2018 was put at 11,653,871 with an estimated population of 198 million, the vehicle per population ratio was 0.06. Since most crashes involves at least two vehicles and given that 10,026 crashes were recorded in 2017, it means that at least 20,000 of the 11,654 million registered vehicles were affected in the crashes. The figure would be more, if multiple auto crashes were included.

Approximately 1.25 million people die each year on the world’s roads, and between 20 and 50 million sustain non-fatal injuries. The global status report on road safety is the first  broad  assessment  of  the road safety situation in 178 countries, using data drawn from a standardized survey. The results show that road traffic injuries remain an important public health problem, particularly for low – income and middle – income countries like Nigeria [1]. 

Table 3: Mean of the reported number of injured from road traffic accidents in different LGA’s in Lagos State

By most accounts, speed has been identified as a major cause of road traffic accidents; influencing the risk of occurrence and the severity of injuries arising from such accidents.

Speed contributes to almost 30 percent of deaths on the road in high – income countries and about 50 percent in low-income nations, including Nigeria [1]. In the 2016 RTC report, 379 persons died and 2,338 others sustained varying degrees of injuries in November while 391 died and 2,557 were injured in October.

This statistics informed the speed control policy of the Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC) which first phase was inaugurated nationwide on February 1, 2017. The policy prescribes the installation of speed limiting device in vehicles to keep them within limits stipulated by the Nigeria highway code. It means that no matter how the driver tends to accelerate, his vehicle cannot exceed the speed limit programmed in the device. 

For private cars, the code stipulates a maximum speed limit of 80kilometre per hour (km/h) on highways and 100km/h on express ways. 

Taxis and buses are expected to maintain speed limit of 80km/h and 90km/h on highways and expressways respectively. The code limits tankers and articulated vehicles to 50km/h on highways and 60km/h on expressways. 

Although there has been some improvements made by the FRSC in conjunction with the police force but there are still lots of room for improvement. Presently, both of them do not have sufficient resources for checking speed violations, careless and dangerous driving and parking offences among others. Unfortunately, such an important issue as reducing road traffic accidents in Nigeria has not yet received the adequate attention that it deserves.

Indeed, so serious have the problems of road accidents become in recent time that driving on the roads is one of the most closely regulated activities in the world today. The worrisome aspect is that 90% of the statistics are from developing countries like Nigeria. Before 2030, deaths from road traffic accident (RTA’s) will surpass cerebrovascular disease, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. Other studies on road traffic accidents patterns include [4-6] [18-22].

It is estimated that the macro-economic burden of road injuries for 166 countries shows that between 2015 and 2030, road injuries will cost the world economy $1.8 trillion through a combination of diversion – healthcare expenditure that would otherwise have been used for savings or investment and losses in employment due to mortality and morbidity. This figure is more than the aggregate GDP of Canada (the World’s tenth largest economy) in 2017. The economic burden of road injuries is equivalent to an annual tax of 0.12% on global GDP during this period [23]. See Table 6.

Private-ownership of roads in Nigeria is still at the deliberation stage. In other words, roads (tarred and un-tarred) are owned by Federal, State and Local authorities in Nigeria. Most of these roads, however, share a common characteristic of being “unsafe at any speed” at any time of the day. This is as a result of the low quality of the road components, structures and patterns. For example, road surfaces are undulating and rough. Also, the poor standard of road infrastructure like guard railings/barriers, pavement marking and signs; illumination levels, traffic signals, horizontal/vertical alignment and sight lines contribute largely to the increasing carnage on Nigerian road network. Therefore, there is serious need for policy intervention programmes on accident prevention in Nigeria.

Policy Implications 

With a daily average of 76 fatalities and 104 causalities and 14.2 deaths per 100,000 population for the year 2004 from road traffic accident, Nigeria seems to have increased its fatality rate per accident even though the absolute number of the accident seems to have decreased. The establishment of the Federal Road Safety Commission to evolve a scientific and cultural relevant programme to meet the objective of its role as enunciated in degree No. 45, 1988 is another in the efforts of government to increase safety measures in Nigeria.

Table 4: Means of the reported number of injured from reported road traffic accident from 1970-2019.

Source: Authors computation

Table 5: Regression results of the factors of injured from road traffic accidents in Lagos State

S = Significant at 0.05 level of probability NS = Not significant

One factor that has worsened this accident rate is the use of poorly maintained vehicle occasioned by the structural adjustment policy of 1989. This is further worsened by lack of genuine spare parts, and the flooding of the market by fake spare parts. These further put the life of the drivers and passengers at greater risk. Similarly, the cost of tyres which has been put beyond the reach of the average car owners has led a lot of people to their untimely death. Inability to change these bad tyres lead to blowouts. This situation therefore have turned many a vehicle to “mobile coffins”. However some of the interventions for Nigeria include;

Table 6: Comparison of Macroeconomic loss and lifetime disease burden by World Bank Region and country income group

Source: World Bank, [23]

• Seat Belts: No matter how you will drive there is always a chance that you will be involved in an accident. You cannot predict when it may happen. From statistical analysis of road traffic accidents in Nigeria since independence the chance that one will be injured in an accident in his life time is 1:3; that he may be killed in an accident is 1:9. The best protection inside the vehicle is the use of seat belts (Federal Road Safety Commission Highway Code, 1997). Similarly, the use of seat belts in Nigeria was optional, hence many vehicles are not fitted with seat belts. In those that have them, they are not being utilized by drivers and passengers alike. But currently, the Federal Road Safety Commission has made the use of seat belts compulsory to all motorists with effect from July 1st 2005. In most developed nations especially Britain, a lot of money has been sunk into the implementation of the use of seat belts. The seat belt is an example of an active intervention for occupants because it requires some action on the part of the users. Its effectiveness in preventing injury and death in motor vehicle collisions has been well established by many earlier research studies

• Motorcycle Helmets: Safety helmet worn in the correct way and properly fastened in the most effective way could increase your chances of surviving an accident (Federal Road Safety Commission Highway Code, 1997). In the time past, various laws were enacted by Federal, State and Local governments to curb the excesses of the riders. These include the National Road Traffic Regulation of 2004 and FRSC Establishment Act 2007 to mention but a few. The acquisition of motorcycle helmets is well within the budgets of the people who afford motorcycles in this country. In addition, promulgating helmet laws has been associated with significant decrease in mortality and injuries sustained from motorcycle crashes [24-25]. When a motorcycle is acquired, purchase of an approved helmet should be encouraged or even mandatory in low-income countries (LICs) given the feasibility and potential sustainability of this intervention. 

Just like seat belts have proven effective in motor vehicle crash related injury reduction, motorcycle helmets have proved effective in motorcycle crash related injury reduction making motorcycle helmet laws a strategy with proven effectiveness. Infact, recent research findings in setting other than the United States corroborate the evidence for the effectiveness of mandatory motorcycle helmet laws [26 -28]

• Speed Limits: Drivers often think that the faster they drive, the more they impress themselves and others. They fail to remember that anybody’s tyre can burst that accidents at high speed are more disastrous than accidents at low speed; that the vehicle is a machine and can fail at any time. At 100kmph, your vehicle moves at 28 metres per second, just imagine where you could be in only one second if you veer off the road which is usually less than 12 metres wide. (Federal Road Safety Commission [6]. The Federal Road Safety Commission also imposed speed limit for all categories of vehicles i.e. 100kmph maximum speed for all private cars, 90kmph for commercial vehicles and 60kmph for trucks. But common sense often dictates lower speed limits. Speeding on highways is a major cause of traffic crashes. The effect of speed on causing traffic related crashes, injuries and deaths has been documented in many settings [29-30]. For example, the 1995 repeal of the United States national maximum speed limit, allowing states to raise interstate speed limits, resulted in a 15% increase in fertilities in 24 states that raised speed limits. In Adelaide, Australia the risk of severe crash involvement was found to increase as vehicles speed increased [31]. Infact, the over 20% reduction in traffic crashes and deaths in Brazil has been partly attributed to speed limits which have been posted on many roads since 1998

• Public Education Targeting Motorists: Your safety depends on what you see and how you react. If you need spectacles to meet the official eye sight standard, wear them. It is an offence to drive with uncorrected defective vision. For example, a Nigerian study found a third of taxi drivers to have poor vision. Although the findings from a 1999 study revealed the ineffectiveness of driver education for young drivers, there is some evidence that general public education along with some behavioural modification that targets motorists may have some impact on road safety. One area is education of motorists on posted traffic signs. A recent study in three countries i.e. United States, Sweden and United Kingdom, showed that comprehension of 28 posted traffic signs for drivers were related to years of driving experience [32-35]

• Database Development and Information Sharing:Whilst each agency requires developing a data base for effective planning of its operations, inter-agency collaboration and information sharing are also important to widen the prism of evolving one big road safety net spread all over the country

• Traffic Control by Signs: A thorough knowledge of traffic signs, signals, road and markings together with signals by authorized traffic officers are to ensure a smooth and safe traffic flows. You must know them and be able to recognize them immediately. In the case of regulatory signs such as stop at intersection, stop police, stop highway survey, no left turn, no right turn, No “U” turn, No entry for lorries, no waiting, etc, you must obey them without hesitation [36-40]

• Research on causes of road traffic accidents in the country, especially their spatial and temporal patterns on a regular basis is recommended

The decade of action for road safety (2011-2020) was proclaimed by UN general assembly to accelerate coordinated international action aimed at reducing the number of deaths due to road traffic injuries. Within this context, the UN road safety collaboration (UNRSC) developed a global plan of action as a broad framework of activities which were grouped into 5 pillars, namely:

• Pillar one       :               Road safety management 

• Pillar Two     :               Safer road and mobility 

• Pillar Three   :               Safer vehicles 

• Pillar Four     :               Safer road users 

• Pillar Five     :               Post crash response 

The Federal Road Safety Corps as the lead agency in road safety management and administration in Nigeria aligns its operational activities and strategic goals towards achieving these goals in Nigeria by keying into all the 5 pillars by setting target into reduction of number of road crashes and fatalities. 

        Despite the efforts made in tackling the problem of lack of adequate safety on Nigeria’s roads, the problem still persists. The following challenges are noted:

• Need for modern equipment to practically tackle the issues 

• Failure to sanction road traffic violators appropriately 

• Insufficient funding to execute more projects and programmes especially those associated with the decade of action 

• Inadequate number of trained personnel to tackle the issues at both the policy development and implementation level

All over the world the phenomenon of road traffic accident has become the most serious traffic problem in need of a pragmatic solution. In Nigeria, this problem has been difficult to address probably because of the country’s level of development. Roads are often built through areas where economic activity already exists, thus creating conflict over space between road users and the local population. People also tend to settle near roads because of the increased economic activity. This is a dynamic process involving changing populations, changing settlements, changing migration patterns and changing needs, yet these changeable solutions are generally not considered in the design and construction of roads.

As we approach the end of this decade of action for road safety and start on the relevant road safety target dates set out in 2030 agenda, Nigeria must deepen national engagement with the new 2021-2030 time frame for reduction in road traffic deaths and injuries. To push forward in the second decade of action for road safety, with a goal of reducing road traffic deaths and injuries to at least 50% from 2021-2030, Nigeria must support the call upon member states and stakeholders to continue action through 2030 on all road safety-related targets of the SDGs, including target 3.6 in line with pledge of the 2019 high-level political forum on sustainable development conveyed under the general assembly. We must especially take into account the remaining decade of action to deliver the SDGs by 2030 in their entirety.

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