Armah’s second novel, Fragments [1], delves into Baako’s experiences as a Been to^[1] in the United States of America. Upon his return to his family in Africa, he is met with disappointment and resentment. Only his grandmother Naana, a predictor and the keeper of ancestral wisdom, comprehends Baako’s desires to combat social misconduct and the myth of the cargo cult^[2]. The author suggests that the return of the deceased son is symbolic of rebirth. Armah’s third novel, Why Are We So Blest? [2], examines the situation in Ghana and shares similarities with Fragments. The book offers a critical analysis of the political class in Africa and Western imperialism in the continent.  These two novels may signify the beginning of attempting Africa’s cultural challenges, which demand revising the current system. An objective assessment must be carried out to gauge the efficiency of such endeavours.

One of the reasons that Armah attributes to the economic, cultural and spiritual collapse of Africa is the rejection of tradition. According to him, Africa has opted for a policy that reduces it to being solely consumer after abandoning the ancestral habits in which each was both a producer and a consumer. Indeed, if modern society makes so little room for African culture that it cannot be said that tradition still occupies an important place, it would be an exaggeration to believe that it has completely disappeared. Armah shows that there is still hope that this tradition can be revitalised to serve as a foundation for cultural revalorisation. In his vision of cultural reconstruction and spiritual continuity, Armah draws on the symbolistic approach to deal with contemporary cultural issues. Through this, he resorts to matriarchs as having representative roles in his setting. As defined by Suleiman in The Thesis Novel or The Fictive Authority [3]. 

Yet the feeling that she is turning alone is relevant in the way that she is too special in her faith compared to others. This same motivation is also found in Gikandi’s book Reading the African Novel [4], when he says:

“Naana … is able to bear her alienation from the world of the moderns because of her historical and mythical links to a world which celebrated values that were less demanding and destructive than those she sees at work in contemporary Ghanaian society” [4].

This article investigates the cultural importance of matriarchs in two novels authored by a Ghanaian writer. It examines the reasons behind the author’s curiosity in this generation that existed in the past and continues to exist in the present and can predict future events. It evaluates the extent to which the author highlights the role of matriarchs in their society. How do these matriarchs intend to preserve spiritual tradition by passing on teachings to the younger generation who have been impacted by a cultural crisis of values, largely due to their interaction with the West due to colonization and neo-colonialism? What is the figurative significance regarding women in his perspective on revitalization? The paper posits that if Modernism supplants indigenous African values, it remains uncertain of its genuine position. Thinking that it has completely disappeared would be a mistake for African societies. Armah demonstrates in his novels that there is still an opportunity for the positive aspects of this custom to be reinstated, acting as a foundation for Africa’s cultural advancement. Using a Marxist and contrastive approach alongside Afrocentrism theories, advocating for the recognition and elevation of African traditional culture, we shall examine the characters for a comprehensive understanding of the theme. After exploring the symbolic significance of matriarchs, this study will examine their objective of preserving spiritual heritage in the two novels.

The Figurative Roles of Matriarchs

Naana and Mzee Nyambura: In several novels, there are matriarchs^[3] who protect historical memory by opposing the compromising effects of Westernisation in African culture, in favour of spiritual continuity. These convictions are exemplified by characters portrayed as senior women who embody a sense of wisdom. They not only symbolise the past but also advocate for a re-evaluation of African traditional values. These characters challenge the arbitrary division between past, present and future, found in contemporary and historical novels alike. The Ghanaian author’s fiction features strong women who play crucial roles. How do these matriarchs intend to preserve spiritual tradition by passing on teachings to the younger generation who have been impacted by a cultural crisis of values, largely due to their interaction with the West due to colonization and neo-colonialism? These traditional women possess a deep understanding of history and are visionary interpreters of past, present and future events. Among them are Naana and Mzee Nyambura, who embody wisdom in Armah’s novels. The name Mzee, like Naana, is a symbol of respect for elders and their knowledge. The character in Why Are We So Blest?, is intentionally given a name in Akan^[4]  language term meaning “old” in Swahili African language, as a sign of respect for aged people in traditional Africa, where they are owed respect and recognition in communities. 

Robert Fraser interprets Naana’s reflection in a “circular way” [5]. According to this matriarch, Baako’s return is a renaissance, “the return of the departing son” as stated in the Holy Bible. The author’s contribution to the cultural reform in Fragments is analysed in the essence of this woman's vision. Through Naana, the night is no longer a distressing moment thanks to new technology. Lamps take the place of the sun at night. Moreover, Naana realizes that technology has lessened time and distances. Through these innovations, past and present merge into an endless time, creating a constant connection. In Armah’s novel Fragments [1], the wise woman, Naana, is portrayed as a symbol and icon of the past, present, and future. The author critiques the socio-political and economic collapse of Africa as a rejection of its indigenous culture, which once fostered a system where everyone was a producer and consumer. The author critiques the socio-political and economic collapse of Africa as a rejection of its indigenous culture, which once fostered a system where everyone was a producer and consumer. Unfortunately, Africa has suffered various damages since abandoning its cultural roots. 

Maintaining a perpetual connection to its cultural heritage is necessary to avoid ignorance. This situation enabled her to appreciate what an ordinary person could not, thus making her the only family member to comprehend Baako’s attitude. Meanwhile, Naana lacks the wisdom to understand the distinction, unlike Naana, who is balanced in their ancestors' tradition and modernity. Whereas, Mzee Nyambura, like Naana, defends an African identity and seeks to prevent anyone from falsifying it in a way that could negatively impact the destiny of the African people and upset their existence. However, we have not seen her rebel against the young American's preferred method of preserving the information she provides. The presence of the tape recorder in Why Are We So Blest?, serves as a contemporary symbol, akin to the Lampe metaphor in Fragments which represents the continuity of time in an endless day. Objective and concise, the revised text delves into the literary devices used in Fragments, without any added subjective evaluation or sprawling descriptions. While not a traditional method of preserving ancestral memory in Africa, the tape recorder highlights the significance of orality in deepening the understanding of the past. However, it is crucial not to protect the historical truth subjectively. Instead, Africa could potentially hinder the distortion of memory using these innovative techniques and add to the overall comprehension. “Revaluation and legitimization of values ​​related to the individual” and society as viewed in Richard Samin’s article entitled “New South Africa and the Hazards of History” [6].

Niambura and Naana are both considered living libraries. Armah was also concerned about the unproductive Ghanaian leadership, as the television station he worked for gradually became demoralising and started burning his texts. He chooses not to disclose what he harbours inside himself for Naana to comprehend him.

Don’t go to Naana. I don’t understand why you always refuse to tell me what’s going on. He sat down next to her and saw the tension on his face go away. “Don’t go,” Naana assumed. “Sit with me. You are sad, aren’t you? I can’t understand why you always refuse to tell me what is happening.” “He sat by her, and saw the strain in her face disappear.” “Will you talk to me? …” “I will, Naana, but not today” [1].

The elderly lady awaits a propitious moment to elucidate her need for Baako's attention. Her primary tool to address assorted predicaments is her cognizance of ancestral wisdom. She has been waiting indefinitely, highlighting the intergenerational chasm.  Today's younger generation appears to lack attentiveness to true knowledge, potentially resulting in the loss of significant knowledge due to the passing of influential individuals. This phenomenon brings to mind Ahmadou Hampate Ba’s comments on the deaths of “great people” in Africa, which he considered a tremendous loss in terms of cultural knowledge from the past, comparable to a burning library. That is to say, esteemed individuals frequently pass away without transmitting their knowledge and wisdom to the succeeding generation. The issue is that the latter tends to undervalue elderly individuals, as they are often more preoccupied with contemporary material pursuits as opposed to traditional values. Some even deem these elderly individuals as behind the times. Unfortunately, these young people often fail to recognize the significance of the wisdom of their elders until it is too late. Armah considers the situation of the youth. However, to advance his vision and approach to cultural transformation, he tasks them with bearing the imprint of his cultural renovation based on Africa’s ancestral wisdom.

The disconnection of the past's icons in African societies has always posed a problem, largely due to the interconnectedness of the past and present.  Another point to consider is that the younger generation may lack the necessary wisdom and experience to effectively tackle certain societal issues. This is exemplified in the novel Fragments, with Baako Onipa serving as a reflection of the modern world, alongside Aimee Reitch and their associates in Why Are We So Blest? However, Baako becomes increasingly withdrawn and subdued after being berated and disillusioned, while Naana is left feeling insulted.

Naana began the conversation by saying, “Listen, Baako, I should explain this to you.” But the conversation could not continue because Efua, a modern-day person, had just entered the room. There is a recurring conflict between modern and traditional societies depicted through this allegory. In African tradition, grandparents, especially grandmothers, tend to spoil their grandchildren and show them more love than their children, which is regarded as an unusual form of love. It appears excessively individualistic, as Armah exposes in Fragments, where the connection between Naana and Baako comes across as emotional. Does Naana suggest that a woman cannot live without love? Both characters experience anxiety, but the root lies in their relationship, which focuses more on contemporary problems than traditions. Naana understands that, in African society, only men represent fertility and continuity, so she has selected her granddaughter for this position. Whereas Armah’s third novel, Why Are We So Blest? [2], addresses the African cultural problem and its dilemmas.

The novel explores different perspectives, including the role of traditional women such as Naana in Fragments. Although the book covers various themes, we will focus on one that is pertinent to our topic. Indeed, Mzee Nyambura is interviewed by Aimee Reitch, a white American protagonist in the novel who, from her first stay in Africa, wants to learn about the customs and recent history of the continent mainly the history of Maji Maji ^[5] as initially observed, the transmission of ancestral memory occurs through oral tradition. The customs are typically passed down from older generations to the young who are responsible for perpetuating them through initiations and rites of passage. However, these customs are preserved within human memory and are not recorded in books or on magnetic tapes. Contrary to these principles, the American uses a tape recorder to document her conversation with Mzee Nyambura, a matriarch who is a living memory and witness of the societal changes that Africa has undergone in the past. The current circumstances have not affected her memory and behaviour she can vividly recount the history of the continent. Yet, she strongly condemns the subversion of African identity during colonial resistance. Armah satirises the involvement of African intellectuals in this period of history through a character named Ndugu Pakansa, who embodies President Jomo Kenyatta, the first President of Kenya. The narrator expresses scepticism towards certain intellectuals who symbolize moral decay.

Through the interview, it is apparent that Nyambura, the matriarch, approaches a sensitive subject with great regret - the violent history of Africa during colonial conquest. Nyambura initially displays a lack of enthusiasm towards European behaviour at the start of the interview. While sharing her story, she reflects remarkably on Aimee. However, she agreed to participate, only because of Ochieng’s request, an African who was her companion. Another aspect that troubles her is the name of this American woman, which sounds African but lacks any spiritual connection to her ancestors. She addresses the woman with these words. “You call yourself by a different name but I see you are a European. The name you have taken for yourself is bear. It says nothing to your ancestors.”  Through this response, Nyambura aims to demonstrate that traditionally African names always have a logical meaning, often tied to one’s ancestors. 

During the entire interview, the matriarch chose to provide limited answers to Aimée Reitch’s questions. Nyambura believes that some knowledge should only be taught to Africans, and foreigners do not deserve further information about ancient African traditions. This sentiment is also evident when she speaks to the American woman. “What else is to say? I will not say to you ... Some matters are too heavy for any guest, and you are a European ... You are a European.” One can observe that this woman shares many similarities with Naana from Fragments, both serving as guides and reconnecting their peoples through their mastery of tradition, as she did with Baako. They have a special mission to transfer their wisdom to their grandsons, who will ensure cultural continuity after their passing.

These women are best positioned to write and preserve the history of Africa. The author emphasises that those writing the continent’s history must acknowledge the wounds caused by colonial violence. Any subjective evaluations are to be marked as such. It is therefore imperative that descendants of those who suffered slavery and colonization rewrite or revisit their peoples’ history. This explanation appears more credible than that provided by Christina Augustine Davis, who attributes Mzee’s remarks and apprehensions to the fact that: “we do not reveal such important things ... we do not pass on the fundamental story of her people” To non-native individuals, the attitude of the character may not necessarily be a refusal to share information with a person from a different culture, but rather apprehension that the credibility and significance of the testimony may not align with Mzee’s expectations.

African tradition holds a significant position in contemporary society due to women’s important role in ancient cultural advancements and their relevance to modern times as highlighted in both novels. As conscious Africans continue to seek answers about their origins and address cultural challenges, the bridge between the past and present becomes increasingly important. It is a crucial task for contemporary African intellectuals to perform cultural reformation to promote progress in post-colonial African societies. The author recognizes that literature has contributed significantly to achieving this objective. The findings of intellectuals confirm that modern African societies are moving towards a brighter future.

Women as Symbols of Spiritual Connection 

The role of these matriarchs is of great significance in this transformation. Many textual references in these novels indicate that the spiritual connection developed by these characters represents a genuine fusion between the Akan tradition and the Christian faith. Therefore, it is possible to interpret Fragments and Why Are We So Blest? not only as a portrayal of social dissolution causing spiritual decline but also as a profound transformation of both spiritual and moral nature. From this perspective, it can be argued that the destabilisation of Ghanaian society during the postcolonial period must be viewed as a demand for reflection regarding the conditions and means of sustaining and integrating customary culture in light of Modernism. What is the figurative significance regarding women in his perspective on revitalization? The belief in women’s role and their representation as spiritual leaders is demonstrated in various figures within the novels that not only embody the past but also advocate for the reassessment of African traditions. From contemporary to historical novels, irrespective of the variation of the plot, the author emphasises the spiritual continuity depicted by the text: “Sometimes I know my blindness was sent to me to save me from the madness that would surely have come with seeing so much that was not to be understood.” Oddly, this confirms her clairvoyant abilities and status as a predictive woman.

In contrast to blind individuals who see without understanding, she knows even when she cannot physically see. For instance, she knew that no ritual sacrifices were made during the baptism of the baby even though nobody informed her. Clairvoyants are often blind, and their weaknesses symbolize the inner aspect that perceives what the average mortal cannot. She can also perceive the presence of those she is familiar with even when they are out of sight. This phenomenon was demonstrated when Baako returned home to collect his sister for her hospital appointment, and Naana abruptly inquired of her grandson: “That is you, Baako, but who is the other?” She possesses the ability to abstract and make prophecies that allow her to delve into the past, analyse current events and comprehend the future, as she attested before her grandson’s departure overseas. Unfortunately, her family does not share her beliefs and ideas. Thus, Naana and Mzee Niambura embody the essence of African tradition.

As depicted in Fragments through Naana, the protagonist in Why Are We So Blest?, aims to imply via Mzee’s statements that spiritual continuity can solely be legitimately upheld by Africans. According to Niambura, spiritual continuity can only be truly defended by Africans themselves, who possess the merit to preserve the African continent’s history. Furthermore, he highlights that African writers have left some undocumented histories. However, cultural workers must uncover these mysteries that hide important aspects of African culture for improvement and sharing in Ghanaian society and the rest of the continent. Therefore, the narrator proposes that to achieve a better future, it is necessary to consider implementing methods that, while not necessarily replacing those of the past, strengthen the African people’s duty of remembrance. The duty of resistance to the test of time is crucial for preserving the African past, which must not be hindered by the right to exception. The two female characters in the interview serve as examples: one uses reminiscences to bring back the past while the other focuses on preserving it for the future.

These matriarchs provide contrasting examples of how spiritual decadence can be highlighted in novels. The opening scene of Fragments is recounted by Naana at the beginning of the narrative. The small family gathers to call upon the ancestors’ spirit to safeguard Baako before he departs for the United States of America: “His uncle Foli has always been one to have a spirit flawed by the heaviness of flesh too often listened to.” Even after imploring the ancestors according to tradition, the act of pouring drinks is confirmed by the family priest, validating Naana’s thoughts. However, Uncle Foli’s refusal to pay for the drinks bought for the occasion is a significant error. Naana comments on Foli’s attitude towards the spiritual and the significance of this ritual:

Not even Foli’s voice, used so often for deceit, could scrape the peace and understanding of those ancient words. A human being alone is a thing sadder than any lost animal and nothing destroys the soul like its loneliness. Only after those words did Foli think to begin pouring out the schnapps, he had been holding in those hands of his which hate so much to let hot drink escape. He has kept the spirits waiting like begging children for the drink of their own libation and, thirsty drunkard that he has always been, even when at last he began to pour it out he only let go of little miserly drops, far from enough to end the long thirst of a single one of those gone before. […] The less he poured out to end the thirst of the ghosts the more the bottom would hold for his own dry mouth. 

In this passage, the analysis of Naana’s account of Uncle Foli indicates the impact of modernity on African values, identity and culture. Notably, the author has depicted the transfer of customary spiritual authority, traditionally exercised by men, to women, due to Uncle Foli’s failure to honour tradition. As a representative of a declining emphasis on African tradition in modern times, Foli lessens its significance. Armah’s painting of this situation is presented as a concerning allegation. He reveals how modernism, as a tool of separation, has impacted traditional rituals in modern African societies, leading to a widespread rejection of ancient African culture. 

Naana, who personifies spiritual continuity in the novel, is the ideal candidate to enhance the performance of the ritual whilst preventing Uncle Foli from partaking. “To break the circle” (9) For one reason, she desires complete protection for her grandson, while for another, she holds a deep reverence and appreciation for the ancestral spirits that influence her life “the circular way.” Naana poured a glass of wine and then said the following: “Nananomn drink to your thirst, and go with the young one. Protect him well, and bring him back, to us, to you.” Therefore, Naana should perform the respect ritual differently from what Uncle Foli did during the ceremony before Baako’s departure to the United States of America. However, the performance of Baako’s uncle is what is important, which has led Naana to consider repeating the action that deserves recognition.

Armah endorses the traditional status of women in his initial three novels while remaining true to African cultural practices, particularly the mechanism that governs spiritual continuity. This is demonstrated in his portrayal of Naana as she nears the end of her life. Although elderly, she is prepared to pass over into the realm of her ancestors, thus enabling her family to sustain a spiritual link with their forebears. Overall, women in the Akan tradition play a crucial role in maintaining spiritual continuity across generations. However, within the family circle, both Araba and Efua who are expected to inherit this knowledge, show little interest in doing so, as they are focused on the pursuit of materialism. Only Baako shows some interest, albeit limited, in their family’s spiritual heritage. While he and his grandmother Naana were previously close, their bond seems to have weakened somewhat since his departure. In Naana’s view, Baako is unprepared and unable to fulfil the role’s requirements. This could explain why most of his conversations with Naana never happened. 

The generation gap between grandson and grandmother is a reality in contemporary African societies. Today’s youth pay less attention to their elders’ wisdom while they are still alive, resulting in a lack of traditional knowledge. However, Baako frequently delays the conversation which would allow him to gain a complete understanding. Within the novel, three instances serve as evidence to support this assertion. One such moment arises when he confronts the concept of the phenomenon of the “last spirit,” When he finds himself unable to satisfy the demand, he takes out his notebook and writes about the resulting impact on Ghanaian society: “all that libation and talk like a funeral when I was going on the plane it happens for almost everyone who goes. “I wonder if the ritual is still understood.” Ask Naana later, try to find out what she sees and knows of this.” He understands that only Naana, the possessor of wisdom spanning past, present, and future, can offer a lucid explanation for this ritual. 

Naana demonstrates remarkable characteristics in her efforts to assist Baako in surmounting obstacles. She fulfils the role of a spiritual mother to him, excelling in this capacity, and hence serves as his guide. The said statement indicates that she is a member of the spiritual realm despite existing in a contemporary setting. She is likely to discuss the disparities between generations in Africa. In the first chapter titled Naana, the writer asserts: “Each Thing that goes away returns and nothing in the end is lost.” To expose his concept of the “circular way”, it is evident that the novel’s structure permits reading from the bottom page to the beginning, and vice versa, without sacrificing comprehension.  According to the author’s vision, Baako’s return, leading to disappointment, is equivalent to a future triumph that only perceptive individuals such as Naana can appreciate. 

The themes suggested by the novel’s title do not necessarily imply a complete rejection of tradition due to the impact of modernism. However, they do evoke a sense of optimism for future generations who will undoubtedly inherit the spiritual legacy of figures such as Naana and Mzee Niambura, ensuring continuity. The author advocates for a spiritual approach that introduces new perspectives to connect Africans to their cultures and history. Consequently, the death of Naana would not entail the total eradication of ancient customs. Upon reading the novels together, it appears that the author portrays the performance to affirm the importance of women, as exemplified by prior characters like Naana and Mzee Niambura, who assume the role of mediators between the living and the dead. This corresponds with the notion of wholeness and continuity in Fragments as viewed from a spiritual perspective. However, Jean-Pierre Dozon acknowledges this method of addressing the issue of spiritual connection in Africa in his work entitled La Cause des Prophètes [7]. He demonstrates that modernisation has led to the evolution of rationality whilst not restricting the role of traditional religions in African societies. In modern times, the religious mixture of modern faiths and African traditions is prevalent in the West African coasts to govern the destinies of individuals which does not help to preserve a struggling tradition. Only a small proportion of Africans continue to participate in ancient rituals to pay homage to “the gone before.” Consequently, these female characters have a special mission which is to transmit ancestral memory and bridge the gap between the past, present and future. This highlights their significance in the regeneration of the society they represent. The same importance is observed in the portrayal of African Americans, who seek to reconnect with their ancestral past as part of their search for true identity.

[1] Been-to: somebody who has been abroad and is supposed to bring back money, goods, influence and prestige to his family.

[2] Cargo Cult: any of various Melanesian religious groups characterized by the belief that material wealth (such as money or manufactured goods) can be obtained through ritual worship. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Cargo cult. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved August 25, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cargo%20cult

 In Armah’s Novel Fragments (1974) this concept is associated with the misconception of those people in independent Ghana as in many African countries who think that Europe is an Eldorado. Someone who comes from Western countries must bring with him goods, money, and cars.

[3] Matriarch: a mother who is head and ruler of her family and descendants. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Matriarch. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved August 25, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/matriarch

[4] Akan: a Kwa language of southern Ghana and the southeast Ivory Coast. “Akan.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Akan. Accessed 25 Aug. 2023.

[5] Maji Maji: A Tanzanian political movement of the nineteenth century. The outbreak of the Maji Maji uprising in 1905. Although there was little organization behind it, the uprising spread over a considerable portion of southeastern Tanganyika and was not finally suppressed until 1907. It led to a reappraisal of German policy in East Africa. The imperial government had attempted to protect African land rights in 1895 but had failed in its objective in the Kilimanjaro area. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maji-Maji

To conclude, it can be argued that Naana in Fragments and Nyambura in Why Are We So Blest? show embodying the author’s knowledge of historical experiences through the symbolism and significance of their roles as bearers of cultural identity. The vision of the author expands beyond these matriarchs to include the African Diaspora, demonstrating 
his interest in the entire continent to further his quest for cultural preservation. By relocating from urban regions and residing in a rural setting to disseminate their knowledge of ancient and modern Africa, both characters demonstrate that tradition and progress can coexist without encounter. It is imperative to distinguish between these concepts so that the past can act as a foundation for socio-cultural advancement in Africa. 

Armah remains committed to portraying women as symbols of spiritual connection. Throughout his novels, his female characters evolve and adapt to changing times without compromising their authenticity in maintaining their roles. What is noteworthy in his characterisation is their marginalisation and acute comprehension of fundamental African issues. Additionally, it should be noted that an individual can better understand the world by standing out in it. The earlier novels by the Ghanaian writer appear to be more relevant in terms of expression. Mainly, his novels such as Fragments and Why Are We So Blest?, which show the writer’s ingenuity in cultural reconstruction. Therefore, Symbols and meanings are precisely interwoven to enhance the overall coherence of his work. Why does the author emphasise the spiritual connection as a duty for the new generation to preserve traditions, even though they may lack the wisdom to retain a complete memory of the past? Is he deliberately assigning this task to women, because they represent posterity?

1. Armah, Ayi Kwei. Fragments. Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1974.

2. Armah, Ayi Kwei. Why are we so blest? London: Heinemann African Writers Series, 1974.

3. Suleiman, S.R. Le roman à thèse ou l’autorité fictive. Paris: Presses Universitaires Françaises, 1983.

4. Gikandi, S. Reading the African novel. London: Heinemann, 1987.

5. Fraser, Robert. The novels of Ayi Kwei Armah. Edited by Ed E. Hussein, Oxford University Press, 1980.

6. Samin, R. "La nouvelle Afrique du Sud et les aléas de la mémoire." Palabres, vol. 5, no. 1, 2003, pp. 157–67.

7. Dozon, J.-P. La cause des prophètes: Politique et religion en Afrique contemporaine. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1995.