Education is considered one of the tools to realize a quality society [1]. Therefore, education becomes a crucial aspect in the development of the potential of each individual. In the context of education, learning is the process of interaction between learners, educators, and learning resources within a learning environment [2-6]. Learning is a fundamental need that every individual must acquire [7]. According to Robert M. Gagne, learning is a set of cognitive processes that transform the nature of stimuli from the environment into several stages of information processing needed to acquire new capacities [8-9].

In general, the cognitive theory perspective asserts that the understanding of learning and education involves efforts focused on the processes of forming memory, storing and processing information, emotions, and aspects related to intellectual abilities. Thus, learning is interpreted as an activity that involves highly complex and comprehensive thinking processes [10]. According to Näätänen, Petersson, and Sani, learning is the process of acquiring information, processing information, storing information, and recalling information controlled by the brain [11-13]. Therefore, it can be concluded that learning is a cognitive process that occurs when the brain receives new information through stimuli, processes the information, shapes it, and stores it in memory.

The information processing theory requires sensory tools as modalities, and these modalities are later referred to as learning styles [14]. Modality preferences have received the greatest attention in educational research and practice [14]. According to Rahman et al learning styles are individual characteristics that influence how individuals acquire and absorb information in their environment [15]. Meanwhile, according to Chatib, learning styles are the ways information enters the brain through the senses one possesses [16]. Furthermore, Coffield et al. argue that learning styles reflect deep features of cognitive structures, including patterns of abilities [17]. According to Bakri, Hartati, and Wassahua, learning styles are a combination of how someone absorbs, organizes, and processes information [18-20]. From these definitions, it can be concluded that learning styles are a combination of learners' patterns of abilities in absorbing, processing, storing, and conveying information in the learning process.

Reality shows that in learning, each student differs in performance levels, learning speed, and learning styles. These differences in learning styles indicate the easiest way for students to absorb information during the learning process [21]. For example, visual learners emphasize the presentation of information visually [22-24], auditory learners emphasize the presentation of information through verbal means [25], and kinesthetic learners emphasize direct practical activities during learning [26]. This is consistent with Darmadi's opinion that information stored in short-term memory can be auditory, visual, or semantic, depending on the type of information or task experienced by an individual [27]. Information stored in long-term memory can be encoded acoustically, visually, and semantically. Auditory code is related to sound, visual code is related to images, and semantic code is related to meaning [28].

Mathematics is one of the subjects that plays a central role in fostering critical and analytical thinking. However, each student has a different learning style, which can influence how they process information, especially in solving mathematical problems. The importance of understanding students' information processing patterns based on their learning styles emerges as a challenge that needs to be addressed in efforts to improve the effectiveness of mathematics learning. Learning styles encompass individual preferences for learning methods, organizing information, and problem-solving strategies.

Based on previous research conducted by Kusaeri and Agustina et al it is known that student’s process information based on their sensory modalities in different ways [29-30]. N. Azizah et al. found that visualizer cognitive style tends to solve conceptual understanding problems with a more focused approach on visual representation. They outline structured plans and convey information in the form of images [31]. The research findings of Davis indicate that an increased understanding of the relationship between learning styles and memory appears to help learners gain a better understanding of how to maximize the benefits of preferred learning styles and how to store information in long-term memory [32].

Although these findings provide initial understanding, they have not fully disclosed how this information enters the students' cognitive domain. The three researchers only investigated how students process information with a focus on sensory modalities but did not provide details about the journey of information into the cognitive domain. Therefore, this research aims to fill this gap by delving deeper into the stages of information processing in the minds of students, particularly regarding how information is absorbed and integrated into their cognitive aspects. By understanding this process, it is expected to establish a more comprehensive conceptual framework to guide the development of more effective learning strategies that align with the diverse learning styles of students.

Based on the existing conceptual frameworks proposed by Gagne and Atkinson and Shiffrin, they remain general, and no specific framework has been identified based on information modalities, particularly in the context of learning styles. Presented below is a conceptual framework based on Gagne [33].

Figur 1. Gagne's Information Processing Model

The general information processing model is presented as depicted in Figure 2. The information processing model is designed to aid in understanding the internal schema or process of an individual's thinking that occurs within the human brain or mind. The information processing model, as shown in Figure 2 by Atkinson & Shiffrin, is as follows:

The conceptual framework of information processing refers  to  the way   information  is processed in the human 

Figure 1: Gagne's Information Processing Model

Figure 2: Atkinson and Shiffrin's Information Processing Model [34]

mind. It is an abstract model that elucidates how humans gather, organize, store, retrieve, and utilize information. This conceptual framework is valuable for understanding how the human brain operates and why people react to information in certain ways. It is essential to delve deeper into the conceptual framework of information processing based on students' learning styles. Therefore, this research designs a conceptual framework focusing on students' information processing based on their learning styles. Learning styles, as the unique dimension of each individual, encompass visual, auditory, and kinesthetic aspects, all of which play a crucial role in understanding, remembering, and solving mathematical problems. By detailing the stages from sensory register, attention, perception, rehearsal, short-term memory, retrieval, to long-term memory and encoding, this research aims to investigate how students with different learning styles process information.

By developing a conceptual framework of information processing based on students' learning styles, this research aims to provide a deeper insight into how students respond to, store, and use mathematical information. Through this conceptual framework, it is expected to uncover a comprehensive understanding and new insights that can open the door to the development of more accurate and supportive learning methods for various learning styles of students.

This research employs a qualitative approach with the grounded theory research design. The instruments utilized involve observation and open-ended interviews. Data analysis is conducted using the interactive analysis model concept developed by Miles & Huberman. This model categorizes three interactive streams occurring simultaneously, namely data reduction, data display, and conclution drawing/ verification [35].

Based on the research findings, a conceptual framework was discovered based on students' learning style preferences. The details of this conceptual framework are outlined below.

Result 

Students with a visual learning style: Students with a visual learning style exhibit a unique information processing pattern in solving mathematical problems. From the beginning, in the sensory register, they quickly capture visual information from their surroundings, focusing on elements such as shape, color, and patterns related to the mathematical problem at hand. In the attention stage, the visual learners' attention is focused on images, diagrams, or concept maps that can help them better understand mathematical concepts. Their perception process involves interpreting images and visualizing concepts, where they can imagine mathematical elements in mental form and form an overall picture of the problem.

During the rehearsal stage, visual learners engage in visual representation of images or conceptual visualizations in mathematics to reinforce their understanding. They visualize the steps or relationships between these visual elements. Relevant visual information is then temporarily stored in short-term memory, allowing students to access images or visual representations that assist in solving mathematical problems in the short term.

When entering the retrieval stage, visual learners can retrieve information from their visual memory. They can recall images that help them solve mathematical problems. Ultimately, information that is relevant and significant is encoded into long-term memory in the form of visual representations that can be accessed in the long term. Students with a visual learning style tend to store mathematical concepts in visual form, providing a strong foundation for their long-term understanding.

Students with a auditory learning style

Students with an auditory learning style exhibit a distinctive information processing pattern when dealing with mathematical problems. In the sensory register stage, auditory learners rapidly absorb information through hearing. They may be more responsive to sounds and oral explanations, which are immediately noticed in their attention. In this stage, the attention of auditory students is focused on sounds or keywords related to the mathematical concepts being studied.

Upon entering the perception stage, auditory students build their understanding through hearing and comprehend mathematical concepts through oral explanations. They can imagine the steps or processes of mathematics through the sounds they hear, forming a general picture of the problem. In the rehearsal stage, auditory learners tend to perform oral representation of information or problem-solving steps, repeating words or sounds related to the concepts.

Relevant and significant information is stored in the short-term memory of auditory students. They can access this information through sounds or words they remember. In the retrieval stage, auditory students can retrieve information from their oral memory, using sounds or explanations they recall to solve mathematical problems. Ultimately, information deemed important is encoded into long-term memory in the form of sounds or oral concepts that can be remembered in the long term. Students with an auditory learning style tend to store mathematical concepts in the form of sounds, providing a strong foundation for their long-term understanding.

Students with a kinestetic learning style

Students with a kinesthetic learning style exhibit a distinct information processing pattern when facing mathematical problems. In the sensory register stage, kinesthetic students quickly respond to information through physical experiences and touch. They are more focused on physical objects or manipulates related to the mathematical problems they encounter. When entering the attention stage, kinesthetic students tend to focus on physical activities or direct practical experiences. They can more easily engage in learning mathematics if it involves movement or actions that directly involve their bodies. In the perception stage, kinesthetic students build their understanding through physical experiences and object manipulation. They create mental images through direct actions, imagining mathematical processes through movement or touch.

In the rehearsal stage, kinesthetic learners repeat physical actions or object manipulations related to problem-solving steps. They may prefer to move or engage in physical activities as a way to understand mathematical concepts. Relevant information is stored in their short-term memory, allowing quick access through remembered actions or movements.

The retrieval stage involves kinesthetic students retrieving information from their kinesthetic memory. They use physical experiences or movements as keys to retrieve information from memory. Information deemed important and significant is encoded into long-term memory in the form of physical experiences or movements that can be remembered in the long term.

Based on the above data, sensory memory records information or stimuli entering through one or a combination of the senses, namely visually through the eyes, auditory through the ears, olfactory through the nose, gustatory through the tongue, and tactually through the skin [36]. Furthermore, Atkinson & Shiffrin [37] clarify that when a stimulus is presented, there is a direct 

Figure 3: Conceptual Framework of the Information Processing Model

registration of that stimulus in the corresponding sensory dimension. According to Hitipiew, the processing of information begins with the presence of a stimulus or information entering the sensory memory/sensory register through the sensory organs [38]. Information entering the sensory register will then be selected (selective attention), information that is not attended to will be immediately forgotten, while information that receives attention will be forwarded to short-term memory. The result of information selection will generate perception [39]. 

When information continues to receive attention and there is frequent rehearsal (repetition), the information that has been perceived will enter long-term memory. After being in long-term memory, information can be retrieved (recall of previously stored information) through specific strategies, or the information will be forgotten (failed or cannot be retrieved) due to deficiencies in the memory system or its storage [39].

Understanding mathematical learning styles can help modify effective teaching strategies [40]. Because learning styles influence how students choose to access, process, and assimilate the information they receive. However, this does not mean that the way of processing and processing information is singular, meaning that it depends on their dominant learning style preferences, but they still involve other learning styles.

These findings highlight the importance of understanding students' learning style preferences in mathematics learning. By aligning teaching methods with each student's learning style, teachers can enhance the effectiveness of learning and understanding mathematical concepts. This approach facilitates a more effective and comprehensive learning experience, taking into account the uniqueness of each student in processing information. Additionally, integrating learning strategies that match learning styles can help students retain and recall mathematical concepts in the long term.

Based on the presentation of this data, a conceptual framework of information processing based on learning styles can be depicted.

Figure 3: Conceptual Framework of the Information Processing Model

registration of that stimulus in the corresponding sensory dimension. According to Hitipiew, the processing of information begins with the presence of a stimulus or information entering the sensory memory/sensory register through the sensory organs [38]. Information entering the sensory register will then be selected (selective attention), information that is not attended to will be immediately forgotten, while information that receives attention will be forwarded to short-term memory. The result of information selection will generate perception [39]. 

When information continues to receive attention and there is frequent rehearsal (repetition), the information that has been perceived will enter long-term memory. After being in long-term memory, information can be retrieved (recall of previously stored information) through specific strategies, or the information will be forgotten (failed or cannot be retrieved) due to deficiencies in the memory system or its storage [39].

Understanding mathematical learning styles can help modify effective teaching strategies [40]. Because learning styles influence how students choose to access, process, and assimilate the information they receive. However, this does not mean that the way of processing and processing information is singular, meaning that it depends on their dominant learning style preferences, but they still involve other learning styles.

These findings highlight the importance of understanding students' learning style preferences in mathematics learning. By aligning teaching methods with each student's learning style, teachers can enhance the effectiveness of learning and understanding mathematical concepts. This approach facilitates a more effective and comprehensive learning experience, taking into account the uniqueness of each student in processing information. Additionally, integrating learning strategies that match learning styles can help students retain and recall mathematical concepts in the long term.

Based on the presentation of this data, a conceptual framework of information processing based on learning styles can be depicted.

Students' learning styles play a crucial role in how they process and understand information, especially in the context of learning mathematics. Based on the provided explanations of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning style preferences, it can be concluded that each student has unique preferences in processing mathematical information.

Visual Learning Style: Students with a visual learning style tend to capture and process mathematical information through visual elements. They form understanding through interpreting images, visualizing concepts, and using visual representations. Mathematical concepts are stored in the form of visual images, providing a solid foundation for long-term understanding.

Auditory Learning Style: Students with an auditory learning style are more responsive to information conveyed through hearing. They understand mathematical concepts through sounds, verbal explanations, and the repetition of related words or sounds. Mathematical concepts are stored in the form of sounds, providing a strong foundation for long-term understanding through auditory memory.

Kinesthetic Learning Style: Students with a kinesthetic learning style prefer to involve physical experiences and direct activities in learning mathematics. They build understanding through object manipulation, body movements, and direct practical experiences. Mathematical concepts are stored in the form of physical experiences or movements, providing a strong foundation for long-term understanding through kinesthetic memory.

With this understanding, an instructional approach that considers students' learning styles can enhance the effectiveness of teaching and the understanding of mathematical concepts. Teachers can integrate learning strategies that align with students' learning style preferences to facilitate more effective and comprehensive learning experiences.

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