Global supply chains became more interlinked and vulnerable to disruptions ranging from diplomatic tensions to pandemics to natural disasters and thus require resilient supply chain risk management mechanisms. Therefore, the Supply Chain Risk Management (SCRM) mechanism for Singapore, the world's logistics hub and Vietnam, an emerging manufacturing powerhouse, is examined in an attempt to glean best practices as policy recommendations to strengthen Vietnamese resilience, especially for Small and medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs). Singapore's SCRM framework carries very modern elements in both its legal and technological systems. On the legal front, regulations ease customs and trade while keeping the risk of noncompliance events like false declarations low, for instance, under the policy governing port operations [1]. It also maintains supply chain cybersecurity by employing the NIST Cybersecurity Supply Chain Risk Management guidelines. Technologically, it creates visibility via blockchain, Internet of Things and artificial intelligence to address port congestion risks that cost $2.6 billion annually and labor shortages [1]. Technologies also support the automation of the ports, allowing for resilience in the face of COVID with minimum disruption [1]. However, the challenge of emerging cybersecurity threats like ransomware threats continues to require other such mitigation efforts [1]. Vietnam’s SCRM is evolving amid rapid international integration. The legal framework includes the Law on Customs 54/2014/QH13, introducing risk-based inspections and digital customs, through the NSW system and the Foreign Trade Management Law 2017, which brings trade practices in line with WTO. The national plans include the Vietnam Logistics Action Plan and the Strategy for the Development of Vietnam’s Logistics Services to 2035 in the direction of infrastructure modernization and digital transformation. A large firm will adopt technologies such as enterprise resource planning systems and warehouse management tools, while SMEs, accounting for 98% of businesses, lag behind due to lack of funding and expertise [2]. Vietnam faces serious challenges such as the underdeveloped infrastructure, high logistics price that cost in the range of 16–20% of GDP, bureaucratic inefficiencies, inconsistent regulations and the heavy weightage on imports, mostly from China [3]. Further detriments to SCRM efficacy include such issues as corruption of implementation and internal frictions among agencies, impeding reactive measures as seen in the U.S reciprocal tariffs of 2025. In short, while a developed SCRM system in Singapore remains a smart process that combines governance and technology, the growing framework in Vietnam struggles with its own structural and institutional drawbacks.

By using technology and diversification, Singapore's sophisticated SCRM framework reduces risks like port congestion, which costs $2.6 billion a year [1]. In contrast, Vietnam's emerging policies, on the other hand, prioritize regulatory and infrastructure reforms but have trouble putting them into practice [3]. Especially in Vietnam, numerous problems-with infrastructure inadequacy, high logistics costs and regulatory uncertainties-hinder its SCRM operational effectiveness [4]. While earlier studies focused on the aspect of SCRM in both economies, the literature is devoid of any systematic comparative analyses determining the approaches each has taken. Filling this gap through a comparison of their SCRM frameworks can allow identification of their best practices and formulation of policy recommendations to help fortify the approach within Vietnam to empower SMEs to navigate the global uncertainties and lift their participation in international supply chains.

This study adopts a normative approach, integrating doctrinal research, comparative analysis and case-based methods to analyze SCRM policy frameworks. Doctrinal research examines SCRM concepts and policies theoretically, excluding social factors, while comparative and case-based approaches identify policy differences and practical applications. Doctrinal research reviews literature and policy documents from Singapore and Vietnam, using secondary data to establish SCRM frameworks. A comparative analysis shows best practices for application to the Vietnamese context under a common direction established by regulatory scope, technological integrations and SME support. The case-based methodology picks up issues arising from Singapore's port congestion mitigation and Vietnam's 2021 port closures to give more practical insight into policy outcomes and challenges. Under the merger of these two methods, the study finds gaps existing in Vietnam's SCRM framework and suggest policy reforms to cater for resilience, especially of SMEs and to arrive at out-the-park solutions binding policymakers and business communities.

The study provides a better understanding of national SCRM frameworks by examining and comparing the approaches of Singapore and Vietnam, along with their relevance to Vietnam. It begins by exploring the current development and application of SCRM in both countries. Second, it examines and highlights the shortcomings of Vietnam's fledgling SCRM framework. The study emphasizes the necessity of a strong SCRM framework in Vietnam by drawing on Singapore's resilience-enhancing practices. Finally, it offers policy recommendations that center on three key areas: Strengthening regulatory frameworks, promoting the uptake of new technologies and enhancing SME support through tax incentives and capacity-building programs. By strengthening supply chain resilience, these suggestions seek to increase SMEs' access to international markets and promote economic growth.

Overview of Supply Chain Risk Management and National Approaches in Singapore and Vietnam

Overview of Supply Chain Risks: Risk is inseparable from our lives; it is encountered both personally and professionally. Whenever we make a decision regarding finances, health, or time management, risk is involved in almost every aspect of daily life. The nature of risks varies and the ways some people take to handle them may differ based on their experiences with the past and the magnitude of potential consequences. Such varied handling of risk often falls within a pattern that is shaped by a contingency approach whereby an individual adjusts the decision-making process to whatever situation happens at hand by adopting some strategies that he or she used previously or those which seem most probable to work [5]. The very adaptability under which the concept of risk management falls, accumulating experience makes one more capable of dealing with future risks.

A supply chain is very much a complex network of actors, resources and time; therefore, risk management becomes critical in the world of supply chains. The organizational risks that they face in the supply networks are multifactorial and can emanate from both outside and inside sources. As cited in Christopher and Peck [6], external factors include natural disasters, political upheavals and market demand variations, while internal factors could be due to operational inadequacies, breakdown of technology, or human error. The consequences of such risks might ripple through the entire supply chain impacting the company itself and its suppliers as well as distributors and customers. An important challenge for the leadership to make a forward-looking assessment about mitigating these risks so that there will not be any disruption besides having an adaptable business [7].

Supply chain risks have been there in the presence of one. Long-standing and most common among them is the supplier’s failure to perform [8]. It can be a supplier who does not deliver the proper quantity of goods, or delivers late, or delivers products that do not meet the quality standards agreed upon. Such failures have ripple effects throughout the supply chain. Production schedules become delayed, customers become dissatisfied and financial losses are incurred. All of these will require strategies for their management by the organizations involved. This shall include diversification of the suppliers to minimize the risk associated with a single source, contingency plans for dealing with such kind of disruption, investment in technologies for better transparency and communication in the whole supply chain and buffer stocks to sudden shortages [9].

Ultimately, risk management in these supply chains remains a persistent issue, one that requires constant monitoring, adaptation and improvement. It is not sufficient for organizations to create a risk management blueprint and expect all risks to be circumvented. The very nature of supply chain risks necessitates that businesses remain flexible and able to recalibrate their plans as new risks arise [6]. Just as individuals navigate risk in their everyday lives by learning from past experiences and refining their approach, businesses need to adopt a robust risk management strategy that enables them to adjust to the challengers.

Overview of Supply Chain Risk Management

The aim of Supply Chain Risk Management (SCRM) is focused on identifying, analyzing and addressing threats to the ongoing flow of goods, services and information in the supply chain. Each organization or individual may have a diverse perspective on SCRM, thus leading to a different explanation. One definition given by the National Institute for Standards and Technology describes SCRM as a multidisciplinary approach involving multiple interrelated processes, which makes it more comprehensive. As per their definition, SCRM assists in dealing with the risk of using IT products and services with gaps in their security provisions. Their focus leans more toward technological risks of IT assets that are untrusted, meaning they may be vulnerable to several forms of breach. To illustrate, during a supply chain that includes buying certain software or hardware, a firm may evaluate the chances of cybersecurity risks involved in purchasing IT systems from vendors who do not observe strict security policies. This approach reflects the increasing importance of protecting against cybersecurity threats within supply chain management.

Wider SCRM is defined as the implementation of strategies to manage ordinary and extraordinary risks along the supply chain and therefore reduces the risks along the chain and ensures continuity [10]. This definition closely follows the additional concepts of risk management and supply chain management, whereby SCRM is considered the overlap of the two disciplines. Take the automotive sector, for instance; manufacturers face risks from both constant and erratic forces. A firm can deploy SCRM to determine part delivery, fumble risks from suppliers or regional political instability affecting supplier disruptions. Policies such as supplier diversification, development of fallback frameworks, continuous monitoring of risk determinants and others are hallmark characteristics of this approach. Following the significant natural disaster in Japan, global automotive companies suffered severe disruptions in their supply chains because the production facilities of key suppliers were devastated. Consequently, companies in the industry started to develop more robust supply chain strategies, including the adoption of multiple suppliers and keeping buffer stocks of critical parts to reduce the impact of such disruptions in the future [6]. This illustrates the other side of SCRM, which is viewing it as an ongoing process of risk evaluation where companies are actively minimizing risk exposure and optimizing readiness for uncertainties.

One of the focuses of SCRM is the lack of a universally accepted definition, due to it being an emerging discipline. Different industries and sectors tout SCRM with a varying form of emphasis based on the risks that are unique to them. For instance, in manufacturing, there are risks of production halts, supplier failures and transportation delays. Regulatively focused risks like supply chain integrity are observed in the pharmaceutical industry, along with compliance to the health and safety standards. The changing face of SCRM shows the level of integration the global supply chains now have and how fast technology, market forces, or even politics can reshape them. Because of this, SCRM needs to be constantly reinvented in light of new risks and challenges. The spread of e-commerce and its demand for cheaper, faster delivery, has added to the challenges of last-mile delivery. Companies are turning to advanced logistics solutions which include real-time and predictive analytics to better manage these risks [11].

Every sector or discipline may have a different take on the definition of SCRM, however the core aim for all of them is the same: to reduce vulnerabilities, prevent disruptions and limit the damages of supply chain disruptions. By employing effective risk management strategies, businesses can enhance their ability to manage both everyday risks and exceptional events, ensuring that their supply chains remain robust and adaptable in the face of change.

National Approaches to Supply Chain Risk Management in Singapore

Legal Framework Governing Supply Chain Risk Management in Singapore: Singapore is a country with a strategic gateway position in Southeast Asia, connecting important shipping routes between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. This makes Singapore a leading logistics and freight hub in the world - one of the few regions with a free trade zone in the world. However, this also reflects many supply chain management risks that the government of this country has to face. Thereby, the Singapore government has proposed a legal framework to solve these problems.

In Singapore, the import and export of goods is regulated by the government under two main Acts: Customs Act 1960 and Regulation of Imports and Exports Act 1995. Both Acts are administered by the Singapore government.

Customs Act 1960 

The Customs Act 1960 (revised 2020) mainly focuses on the collection of taxes related to import and export activities, including two types of taxes: Customs Duty and Goods and Services Tax on imported goods, as well as regulating the types of goods subject to tax when exported and imported into Singapore and regulating related customs procedures. The Customs Act provides for the following: Classification of goods subject to customs duty or excise duty when imported into Singapore: (1) setting out rules for determining the customs value of goods, their tariff classification and the country of origin of such goods for the purposes of assessing duties and applying preferential tariffs [12], (2) managing customs clearance procedures for imports into Singapore, exports from Singapore and goods in transit through Singapore, including the requirement for customs licensing information.

The Customs Act also provides for the establishment and management of various customs schemes and licensed warehouses, where duty and GST can be suspended if the operation is found to be in breach. The Customs Act also set customs officers to search, seize, arrest and investigate customs offences. The powers include the seizure of items deemed to be involved in an offence, such as computers, mobile devices and cash. Offences are also subject to varying penalties depending on the severity of the offence, which can include false declarations, tax evasion, failure to produce documents and unlawful interference with customs safeguards. Recent amendments in 2020 have increased penalties and introduced new offences to deter illegal activities in the supply chain [12].

Compliance Risk is a common risk that Customs Act faces and can have serious consequences. This is a very obvious risk. Failure to comply with the provisions of the Customs Act can lead to serious legal violations, affecting the business and financial situation. For serious legal violations, the Customs Act stipulates strict penalties for violations such as false declaration, smuggling, or not having the necessary licenses. Penalties can include heavy fines, confiscation of goods and even imprisonment for individuals involved. A specific example is that if a business deliberately declares the wrong HS code for a product to pay a lower tax rate than prescribed, the business will be fined many times the amount of tax fraud and placed on a "blacklist", leading to more stringent inspection of future shipments. In addition, violating goods will be temporarily seized or permanently confiscated. This will cause losses and disruption to the supply chain. Businesses that repeatedly violate Customs Act may also have their operating licenses revoked by the competent authorities. This can be seen as the risk in Supply Chain Management.

The Import and Export Regulation Act 1995 (RIEA)

While the Customs Act focuses on the collection of duties, the RIEA focuses on the control and management of items exported and imported into Singapore that are prohibited, restricted or subject to specific licensing requirements, regardless of whether they are subject to duty or not. The Act is enacted to protect national security, public health and safety and the environment [13].

The Minister of Singapore shall have the power to make regulations relating to the prohibition or control of the import, export or transit of certain items. Such items include: weapons, chemicals, endangered species, certain food products and cultural artefacts and such items will require permits from specific Competent Authorities from countries or organisations other than Singapore Customs. In addition, the Act also provides a framework for the management and issuance of relevant trade information certificates, such as Certificates of Origin, which certify the origin of goods. Falsification of such certificates is also defined as an offence [12]. Public sharing of trader information among domestic government agencies for the purposes of national security, public health and safety and investigation/prosecution of violations under various domestic laws. The Act also provides penalties for violations, such as making false declarations and exporting/importing goods without a license. Penalties may include administrative fines and criminal prosecution.

The risks associated with the RIEA in Singapore include four main contents: (1) the first is the licensing and market access risk, in which failure to identify controlled goods according to the regulations of the Competent Authorities such as SFA, HSA, or IMDA will lead to serious consequences such as detention of goods at the border, forced re-export or destruction and penalties. This is the most basic risk level, directly affecting product strategy and market penetration plans. (2) The national and international security risk is also considered because the RIEA is a tool for Singapore to enforce international sanctions and control sensitive goods, especially in its role as a major transit port. Businesses need a strict partner screening system to avoid inadvertently violating embargo regulations. (3) The risk of product integrity and safety-as agencies such as the SFA, HSA and NEA can require inspection, licensing and even refuse import if the product does not meet health, safety and environmental standards.

The Current Landscape of Supply Chain Risk Management in Singapore

Currently, under the impact of the trade war between the US and China, the tension between the two countries has escalated, leading to major fluctuations in the global supply chain, which has led to companies having to reassess the risks in their supply chains. With the current tense and unpredictable situation, Singapore, as an important trading center of the world, is currently directly affected by these impacts [14]. In addition, the global macroeconomic situation also has a significant impact on Singapore’s supply chain, as current global inflation is rising, along with fluctuations in currency and exchange rates, causing logistics and supply chain costs to increase. This is putting great pressure on Singapore’s supply chain, making it difficult for the country to optimize the cost-to-serve model [15]. 

While digitizing the supply chain brings many benefits, it also brings with it many challenges and risks. The digitization of the supply chain has led to many violations that have seriously affected supply chain operations such as ransomware attacks, exploiting vulnerabilities of third parties (MOVEit breach) and especially serious are increasingly sophisticated AI-driven threats, which have caused significant risks to supply chain operations and data security in Singapore. Currently, the Cyber Security Agency of Singapore (CSA) is working to strengthen the national cyber defense system to avoid the above incidents [16]. 

At the heart of this strategy is the Critical Information Infrastructure Supply Chain Programme Paper. This foundational paper outlines a comprehensive plan to enhance the resilience of Singapore’s essential services by mitigating cyber threats that may originate from their supply chains. The programme emphasizes a proactive and ongoing approach to supplier risk management, moving beyond one-time assessments to a model of continuous monitoring and collaboration [17]. To support businesses, especially small capital and medium capital enterprises, CSA has rolled out practical support programmes. For example, the CISO as a Service program provides co-funding to eligible small and medium-sized businesses for cybersecurity consulting services, helping them align with the Cyber Essentials designation.

Green and sustainable supply chain activities are becoming more popular in Singapore, driven by government regulations that aim to sustain the long-term viability and growth of Singapore’s logistics and supply chain management. These include green procurement, investing in renewable energy sources and signing agreements to reduce carbon emissions in shipping logistics activities [14].

In addition, the Singapore government has also invested in promoting the application of new technologies such as AI and Machine Learning in the coordination and management of supply chains. These tools are currently being deployed directly and have been effective in improving demand forecasting, optimizing inventory management and automating operational processes. Cloud computing and RFID are also factors contributing to supporting the digital transformation of Singapore's logistics and supply chain [18]

National Approaches to Supply Chain Risk Management in Vietnam

Legal Framework Governing Supply Chain Risk Management in Vietnam: Vietnam’s SCRM regulatory framework has changed significantly in response to the nation's growing involvement in international commerce, manufacturing and market integration. The most important constituents of this framework, The Customs Law 54/2014/QH13, The Foreign Trade Management Law and The Planning Law, focus on enhancing competitive measures for supply chain strategic planning, trade facilitation and simplification of policies, rules and regulations.

Key Legislative Instruments and their Roles

The Law on Customs introduced risk-based customs inspection procedures which represented a major progress in customs regulation. The legal reform promotes efficiency through risk-based inspection methods which enable quick clearance for compliant traders while minimizing avoidable delays [19]. The law implements digital customs procedures which support the implementation of Vietnam's National Single Window system that facilitate efficient communication and data sharing inside the nation as well as between ASEAN Member States and other nations [20].

The Law on Foreign Trade Management, enhances the regulatory framework for international trade activities while promoting transparency and standardizing practices according to World Trade Organization agreements. The law supports Vietnam's implementation of safeguards and anti-dumping measures which serve as essential tools for controlling supply chain risks from unfair trade practices.

Vietnam’s legal and policy reforms have been supported by strategic national development programs such as the Vietnam Logistics Action Plan (2017–2025) and the Strategy for the Development of Vietnam’s Logistics Services to 2035. These initiatives focus on modernizing logistics infrastructure, improving legal consistency across agencies and promoting digital transformation to achieve real-time supply chain visibility and responsiveness which are essential for effective risk management.

International Commitments and SME Resilience

One of the key forces driving the development of Vietnam’s SCRM legal framework is its memberships of high-standard international trade agreements like the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, EU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership. These agreements set high standards for customs, product security, environmental and digital trade governance, which oblige Vietnam to revamp its regulatory framework and building of institutions.

Concurrently, the support programs such as the National Program to Support SMEs have been established to incorporate small and medium-sized enterprises into a more organized and resilient supply chains. As SMEs make up more than 98% of Vietnam’s firms, there is a need to offer preferential tax treatment, financial assistance and capacity development programmes to these SMEs in the ‘interest of expanding the range of compliant and risk aware actors’ [2]. This inclusivity is important for national supply chain risk resilience as weakness in SME sections can impact right across the supply network.

Implementation Challenges and Future Directions

The implementation of these advancements faces multiple substantial challenges. The combination of bureaucratic inefficiencies with fragmented inter-agency coordination leads to delays and regulatory inconsistencies that hinder prompt risk response [20]. The Vietnam National Single Window digital tools demonstrate potential for simplifying customs and trade operations yet their implementation remains inconsistent between small and medium enterprises and underdeveloped areas.

The World Bank [21] reports that insufficient digital integration between government agencies prevents complete data sharing and restricted supply chain transparency during enforcement of legal provisions. The World Bank Logistics Performance Index shows that Vietnam performs well in infrastructure and customs modernization but its regulatory quality and supply chain reliability fall behind regional competitors which hampers its proactive risk management capabilities [21].

The private sector, particularly SMEs, continues to face barriers with access to advanced logistics and risk management technologies, limited awareness of long-term vision and plan for practicing supply chain resilience and insufficient trained workforce in functioning capability of SCRM [22]. The limited ability to implement advanced risk mitigation activities operationally is further exacerbated by the limited understanding of logistics, digitalization and risk analytics from the vocational education and training system.

Finally, newer areas such as cyber security risk management or environmental compliance are gradually being incorporated into Vietnam’s supply chain governance framework; therefore, Vietnam will likely adjust its policies in response to growing digitalization trends and global demands for sustainable supply chains. The transformation of SCRM regulations into a more comprehensive framework requires intensified legislative reforms concerning data protection, alongside cyber resilience and green logistics standards [23].

The Current Landscape of Supply Chain Risk Management in Vietnam

During the last decades, Vietnam has been deeply engaged into the global value chains, with a remarkable enhancement in its economic growth and trade connectivity [24]. However, this integration has also made the country vulnerable to a number of external shocks, from geopolitical conflicts, to global health emergencies, to supply chain breakdowns [25]. As a result, the need to adopt and strengthen SCRM practices has become increasingly urgent to enhance national resilience and ensure sustainable economic development [26]. Although significant progress has been made in formulating national strategies and digital initiatives, implementation remains hindered by fragmented governance and infrastructural limitations. While Vietnam still lacks a comprehensive national SCRM strategy, underpinning documents such as ‘the Action Plan for Improving Competition Abilities and Developing Vietnam’s Logistics to 2025’ have incorporated risk management priority areas relating to trade facilitation, digital transformation and logistics infrastructure enhancement.

Given this policy base, the inconsistent regulations and low-level coordination between central and local government still challenge the efficiency of the implementation. Vietnam’s fragmented form of government has led to the uneven adoption of SCRM interventions, which has increased regional variations in risk readiness and SCM performance [20]. Recent investments in port and airport infrastructure such as the Long Thanh Airport project, Cai Mep-Thi Vai Port have been steps in the right direction to improve transport capacity in big cities, critical vulnerabilities remain across the broader logistics network [21]. Continued last-mile inefficiencies of delivery, insufficient multimodal transport connectivity and suboptimal usage of inland waterways and rail, especially beyond secondary economic regions, create material operational risk and supply-chain fragility. These structural fragilities increase vulnerability to shocks and limit the ability of Vietnam’s supply chains to adjust to changing market and environmental forces [27].

Technological adoption varies across sectors. Larger companies and foreign-invested businesses have adopted ERP systems and modern warehouse management tools. In contrast, small and medium-sized enterprises face challenges, such as limited funding, a shortage of skilled workers and a lack of awareness about the benefits of digital tools. Although the “National Digital Transformation Program to 2025” identifies logistics as a key focus area, many SMEs have not implemented these tools, which restricts their ability to monitor risks in real time [23]. 

With SMEs making up over 98% of businesses in Vietnam, their weaknesses considerably affect the overall supply chain [2]. While support programs provide tax breaks and training, many SMEs do not have the means to actively manage risks. The 2025 U.S. tariff shock made this clear, as many affected businesses reacted without having contingency plans or access to diverse markets [28]. Emerging risks such as climate change and cybersecurity are starting to get attention from policymakers, partly due to global regulatory pressures. However, Vietnam's supply chain risk management frameworks do not consistently incorporate environmental sustainability standards and data security protocols. Improving these areas is essential for meeting international compliance expectations and ensuring long-term supply chain resilience.

In conclusion, while Vietnam has taken meaningful steps toward developing a comprehensive SCRM landscape, key limitations in implementation, technology adoption and SME capacity must be addressed. Coordinated institutional reforms, investment in digital infrastructure and targeted support for SMEs will be pivotal to enhancing Vietnam’s ability to anticipate and respond to supply chain risks in an increasingly volatile global environment.

A Comparative Analysis of Supply Chain Risk Management in Singapore and Vietnam

Governance and Policy Coordination: The national SCRM policies rely heavily on the strength and effectiveness of governance structures and coherent policy coordination. These types of structures help build proactive detection; holistic evaluation, impactful reduction and swift reaction of a whole range of supply chain exposures. This section reviews the different governance mechanisms and policy coordination played by Singapore and Vietnam in enhancing the supply chain resilience.

Singapore

Singapore’s governance framework for Supply Chain Risk Management is known globally for strategic coherence, capacity to anticipate and integrated coordination across the whole government. This approach is based on a long-term vision whereby the country is seen as a trusted resilient node in global trade and logistics networks [29]. Since this does not view SCRM as an isolated policy domain, it enables Singapore to embed SCRM within broader economic, industrial and national security agendas. In this way, risk governance becomes more systemic and proactive. This calls for a tightly-integrated institutional arrangement under which the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Enterprise Singapore, Economic Development Board and Maritime and Port Authority would normally work with clear policy alignment. The MTI usually takes an oversight role in the formulation of strategies that include supply chain resilience as part of the economic policy. This can be seen in programs such as the “Supply Chain Resilience Initiative” which reflects this emphasis by providing specific assistance to enterprises that wish to diversify their sourcing and increase their operational flexibility [30].

Singapore’s approach to risk management is distinctive for its focus on the anticipation and scenario planning. The state has institutionalized tools to oversee the permanent observation of geopolitical, economic and environmental trends for the early detection of systemic risks. This anticipatory governance has facilitated timely policy adaptations and allocation of resources. Relevantly, the establishment of the National Security Coordination Secretariat under the umbrella of the prime minister’s office signals the reiteration of supply chain vulnerability at the national strategic level.

Singapore’s legal and regulatory provisions complement institutional coordination to support business continuity and infrastructure resilience. The policies in place span across key themes like Digital Government, Cyber Security, cybercrime ecosystem and risk management in operations. For example, the Monetary Authority of Singapore has established a cohesive policy framework to deal with the management of outsourcing risks that are encountered in financial institutions, which is an initiative that correlates indirectly to buttressing the robustness of financial supply chains that are critical for trade finance [31].

Singapore’s approach to resilience also reflects a deliberate departure from the efficiency-first paradigm. Policies explicitly support the diversification of supply networks, the maintenance of strategic stockpiles and the development of system redundancies. These investments in buffer capacity were notably validated during the COVID-19 pandemic, when disruptions underscored the value of preparedness and flexibility [29].

Vietnam

Vietnam’s approach to governance and policy coordination for supply chain risk management is currently in a dynamic phase of maturation. This progression is driven by the country’s deepening integration into global value chains and the strategic imperative to enhance its national economic resilience [31]. The importance of supply chain risk management has become increasingly recognized, particularly following major global disruptions that have underscored the vulnerabilities of interconnected trade and production systems.

Although Vietnam does not yet possess a singular, explicitly codified national strategy dedicated solely to supply chain risk management, key components of such a strategy can be identified across various policy frameworks and sectoral development plans. The Ministry of Industry and Trade is the main player in formulating trade policy and orienting industrial development, two processes that by necessity concern themselves with issues of supply chain stability and risk management. For the broader national development planning and the infrastructure investments that underpin logistics, the Ministry of Planning and Investment can play an important role. Ministries and government institutions often coordinate through inter-agency committees or task forces, which are set up to address specific challenges, such as a post-pandemic economic recovery or disruption to trade [31]. For instance, Decision 221/QD-TTg by the Prime Minister details an action plan to increase national competitiveness and improve logistics services by 2025. This paper identifies the responsibilities of multiple ministries in order to augment logistics infrastructure and the policies that indirectly enable supply chain risk management.

Yet Vietnam also faces the serious difficulties of a decentralized governance setting that, while permitting locally adapted development initiatives, poses a major obstacle to achieving coherent implementation of national supply chain risk management policies [31]. Such central instruction/provincial execution coordination, however, is easier said than done. This detachment might affect regional heterogeneities of both capacity and preparedness for risk management. Although progress has been made to consolidate vertical and horizontal coordination, each of which requires long-term commitment to organizational capacity building, such processes are still work-in-progress.

Vietnam has also, in the recent years, tried to get in line with global policy trends by including sustainability and due diligence considerations in their supply chain regulations. This includes increasing emphasis on environmental and labor standards, fueled in part by global regulatory developments such as the European Union’s proposed Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive. These new norms are particularly important to Vietnam s exporters that have to preserve market access in areas where the level of compliance is very high. Yet, the organizational capability of ‘the institution’ to implement, police and assist sustainable supply chain practices in large and for the most part fragmented production networks is something still being developed.

Infrastructure and Technology

Infrastructure durability and successful implementation of advanced technologies are key in characterizing the supply chain capabilities of a nation, affecting productivity, visibility and response to disruptions. This section compares the infrastructure and technology landscape of Vietnam and Singapore vis-à-vis SCRM.

Singapore

Singapore is well-located to several of the main sea lanes which are major gateway into and out of Southeast Asia. Singapore has stressed its strategic position as a key international maritime logistics and supply chain center. The Singaporean government has purposefully strengthened its infrastructure and technology ecosystem, enabling Singapore to maintain its high and constant ranking globally in logistics performance and supply chain resilience. Additionally, Singapore’s supply chain risk management capabilities have been underpinned with its initiatives on high-qualified infrastructure and technology.

Advanced Port Infrastructure and Automation: Singaporean port infrastructure is a key pillar of its supply chain strength. The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore has rolled out many ambitious initiatives, for example, the Smart Port and Next Generation Port projects, which leverage digital platforms, automation and anticipatory analytics to optimize port operations and enhance resilience. A flagship project is the Tuas Mega Port, planned to be fully operational by the 2040s. This port will be the world’s largest fully automated container port, designed to handle up to 65 million twenty-foot equivalent units annually and accommodate mega container ships exceeding 450 meters in length. Environmental impact assessments and coral relocation programs have also been implemented to protect marine ecosystems during construction, with an 80% survival rate of relocated corals demonstrating the project’s ecological sensitivity [32].

The government also prioritizes workforce development to ensure a future-ready talent pool. Partnerships such as the MoU between MPA and MISC focus on integrating sustainable digital technologies into marine operations, data sharing, cybersecurity innovations and upskilling seafarers for alternative-fuelled vessels. Training facilities such as the Maritime Energy Training Facility reinforce these actions, making sure that Singapore's maritime workforce always stays competitive and capable of utilizing cutting-edge technologies.

Strategic Risk Management and Supply Chain Visibility: Singapore’s approach to supply chain risk management integrates robust infrastructure with advanced technological tools and strategic planning. Research shows that demand and information management risks like demand volatility, customer bargaining power, inventory costs and delivery schedule compliance can be considered as the most significant challenges in the Singaporean supply chain activities. To deal with these risks, many companies use integrated risk management frameworks which focus on supply chain visibility, collaborative planning and information sharing. Tracking and tracing systems, which is a huge technological advance for supply chain risk management, helps strengthen end-to-end visibility, quantified optimization and simulation methods for risk modeling, as well as technologies for planning contingency. These support firms to point out, analyze, define solutions and monitor risks constantly, strengthening supply chain security, sustainability and adaptability.

Singapore’s digital platform exemplifies this integration of technology and risk management by consolidating regulatory processes and enabling real-time data exchange among stakeholders. Upcoming enhancements will incorporate AI to facilitate just-in-time vessel operations, further improving responsiveness and reducing supply chain disruptions [32].

Vietnam

The infrastructure and technology that underpin Vietnam's supply chains are in a phase of significant change as rapid economic expansion, growing foreign direct investment and government initiatives to overhaul logistics networks combine to transform the country. Yet this dynamism exists in the face of structural bottlenecks and operational struggles that are still trying its resilience. Vietnam built a basic logistics infrastructure but overweighted it heavily on expansion and upgrading. Gateway seaports for example the Cai Mep-Thi Vai cluster have been upgraded to serve ships up to 250,000 DWT and the performance capacity was increased to 117.8 million tons of cargo and 6.8 million TEU of container traffic per annum [33]. Similarly, the Lach Huyen deep water port, a project in phased stages of development from 2018, will by 2025 commission third and fourth terminals, to increase capacity more. To centralize the expansion, Decision No. 442/QĐ-TTg of 2023 announced a Master Plan for the Ports of Vietnam in the Period 2024–2030 with an outlook to 2050 with an annual throughput, in the same year 2030, of from 1.25 to 1.5 billion tonnes and a focus on multimodal transport connections [34]. But links between these hubs and inland industrial parks or consumer markets are spotty, with road congestion and underused rail and river freight lines widening what is known as the “final-mile” delivery gap.

There is variability in digital adoption among supply chains. End-to-end enterprise resource planning, warehouse and transportation management systems have been adopted by large multinationals and state-owned firms. On the other hand, small and medium enterprises which account for more than 97% of Vietnamese enterprises, have limited capital resources, lacking technical human resources and low perception of Vietnamese Entrepreneur of the application of digital tools to their business activities [35].

Acknowledging this reality, the government ratified National Digital Transformation Programme (Decision No. 749/QĐ-TTg), targeting a “digital government, economy and society” by 2025 and logistics as eighth of the key sector through to 2030 [36]. The programme aims to contribute to the building of digital platforms and data sharing, as well as to strengthen the ICT capabilities of enterprises. But the level of R&D invested in domestic supply chain technologies is still low, with most companies preferring to use off-the-shelf solutions from abroad as opposed to developing their own, he said.

Finally, climate change adds yet another layer of risk. Coastal and delta areas near sea level experience considerable risk from sea-level rise, tropical storms and flooding that are detrimental for port facilities, road networks and industrial zones [37]. While more attention is being paid to such threats, climate resilience is still only marginally considered in infrastructure planning. Specific investments and precise adjustments are immediately required to help ensure longer-term supply chain viability.

Industry and SME Involvement

Singapore: Singapore’s industrial policy is strategically designed to foster innovation, global competitiveness and robust supply chain risk management, with Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) playing a pivotal role in this ecosystem. SMEs constitute over 99% of all enterprises in Singapore and employ approximately 70% of the workforce, making them indispensable to the nation’s economic vitality and supply chain landscape [30]. Unlike SMEs in many other countries, Singaporean SMEs are deeply embedded in global value chains, particularly in sectors such as precision engineering, logistics, infocomm technology, biomedical sciences and advanced manufacturing. Their active participation in these sectors supports domestic economic growth and enhances Singapore’s position as a critical node in international supply chains [30].

The Singapore government has developed a comprehensive framework to strengthen SME capabilities in supply chain risk management and innovation. Enterprise Singapore, as the leading agency for development of SMEs, put many programs (such as the Productivity Solutions Grant and Scale-up SG) into operation, which have financial provision, training and internationalization assistance to SMEs. SMEs, with these initiatives are enabled to adopt cutting-edge technologies and enhance operation efficiency, which are extremely vital for effective control on supply chain risks. For instance, the PSG helps SMEs operate digital solutions that strengthen supply chain visibility with automatic processes and enhance inventory management, thereby alleviating vulnerabilities to disruptions [30].

Singapore’s strategic location as a leading global trade gives SMEs a strong encouragement to be involved in the supply chain network. Singapore's world-class ports and airports provide convenience and reliability for goods to move across regions, this can be seen as a major advantage for nurturing businesses. In addition, Singapore has signed various free trade agreements with large economies such as China, the US, the EU and ASEAN nations. These agreements alleviate trade barriers and create welcoming entries to new markets. For SMEs, this means more choices - in both suppliers and customers - helping them spread risk and avoid relying too heavily on any single market [21].

In spite of several absolute strengths, Singaporean SMEs still face many huge challenges in fully institutionalized supply chain risk management as they are relatively small in business size with limited capital and even informal risk management structures. Many SMEs don’t have access to comprehensive SCRM frameworks and lack awareness of supply chain disruption risks and that can hinder their ability to respond effectively to sudden shocks. To address this, many advisory services, risk assessment tools and training programs are provided by the government and related agencies and designed to enhance SME capabilities in risk identification, evaluation and mitigation. For example, best practices recommended for SMEs include building cross-functional internal teams with senior management support, supplier network mapping, risk evaluation during supplier onboarding and continuous risk monitoring rather than one-off assessments [30].

In summary, Singapore gives its SMEs the tools they need to manage supply chain risks with confidence. Thanks to strong government support, simple and clear rules, digital upgrades and strong global ties, small businesses can adapt, grow and stay strong even when things don’t go as planned. This well-rounded support doesn’t just help businesses-it also keeps Singapore’s place secure as a reliable and forward-thinking hub in the global trade system [21].

Vietnam

Vietnam’s fast-growing economy relies heavily on its industrial sector and the active role of SMEs-but managing supply chain risks remains a real challenge. The government knows how important this is and has made supporting industry and SMEs a top priority - especially to help them join global supply chains. Experts predict Vietnam’s economy will grow by 6.5-7% in 2025, ahead of many other countries in the region. This growth is mostly driven by industries like manufacturing, electronics and renewable energy, which are expected to lead in both production and exports in the coming years.

SMEs make up about 98% of all businesses in Vietnam and are key players in areas like manufacturing, logistics and services [2]. But despite their large numbers, only around 5,000 are actually part of global supply chains, showing a big gap in readiness and capability. This low level of participation is mainly because of many ongoing challenges such as lack of coordination, limited access to up-to-date technology and unreliable infrastructure. These issues make it complicated for SMEs to develop and meet global standards. Many still cannot handle the problem of low productivity and meet many obstacles in connecting with multinational companies, which reversely makes them more vulnerable to supply chain disruptions and less competitive overall [2].

Positively, these drawbacks have received awareness from the Vietnamese government and from that, many policy initiatives have been taken effect to boost SME capacity and supply chain integration. It is noticeable that the National Program to Support SMEs is prepared with ambition to increase competitiveness via resource and knowledge sharing, as well as capacity building within industrial clusters. Industrial clusters can be seen as a critical factor in Vietnam's industrial strategy, since they provide a framework for SMEs to cooperate, share infrastructure and have more qualified insights on technology and markets. The recent Decree No. 32/2024/ND-CP streamlines industrial cluster management by consolidating regulations, improving infrastructure investment and offering preferential policies such as tax incentives and simplified administrative procedures. These measures are designed to attract both domestic and foreign investment, fostering a more integrated and efficient industrial ecosystem.

In addition to cluster development, Vietnam is maintaining its supply chain finance programs until 2030 to support the growth of small businesses, as well as support them to deal with risks more easily. These programs make it easier for SMEs to get the funding they need to expand. The second phase puts attention on leveraging the rules, constructing better digital tools for financing and creating green financial incentives that encourage more eco-friendly directions of running business. This shows the government’s ongoing effort to help SMEs stay competitive, while also moving toward a greener and more digital future.

Despite these positive developments, Vietnam’s supply chain ecosystem still faces significant risks due to its relatively low level of integration and maturity. Supply chain disruptions caused by external shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic have exposed vulnerabilities such as lack of long-term strategic planning, limited real-time visibility and weak coordination across supply chain stages (plan, source, make, deliver). Many Vietnamese enterprises, particularly SMEs, focus on short-term operational concerns rather than strategic risk management, which reduces their ability to anticipate and mitigate disruptions effectively.

To avoid these challenges to continue, Vietnam must establish a stronger, more stable and connected supply chain system. More specifically, this is about helping SMEs collaborate closely with larger, well-established firms that can lead and support others in global supply chains. Attracting top international suppliers and large corporations into Vietnam’s industrial zones can also create positive ripple effects, like sharing new technologies, improving workers’ skills and raising quality standards for local businesses [2].

In summary, Vietnam’s industrial and SME sectors are poised for significant growth and deeper integration into global supply chains, supported by strong government policies and favorable economic conditions. However, overcoming fragmentation, enhancing technological adoption, improving infrastructure and strengthening regulatory frameworks remain critical to building supply chain resilience. Continued public-private collaboration, investment in sustainable business practices and strategic alignment with international trade frameworks will be essential to unlocking the full potential of Vietnam’s SMEs in the global supply chain landscape [25].

Strategic Recommendations for Vietnam

Recommendations for Policymakers: To strengthen risk management in Vietnam’s supply chain, transparency in local decisions should be given more attention by policymakers. The PAPI findings reveal less access by citizens to important information such as local budgets and plans for land use. This suggests there should be improved enforcement of the Access to Information Law from 2016 and the 2018 Anti-Corruption Law, both currently in place. Opening up information will make the public more positive about the administration and help with its operations [38].

The country does not have a combination of laws and policies ensuring harmony in national-level SCRM. Instead of just regarding SCRM as a responsibility for one function or field, it must be included in the Socio-Economic Development Strategy and National Public Investment Plans. This type of policy framework ensures that Vietnam’s industry and public funds are used wisely, thus allowing for the inclusion of supply chain risk governance. For developing countries to participate in Global Value Chains (GVCs), strong cooperation from the government is needed, especially to boost sales and get ready for unusual outside problems such as trade wars or pandemics. If Vietnam puts together a national SCRM blueprint with set targets and spends, it can actively recognize risks within textiles, electronics and agri-processing and make sure MOT, MPI and MOIT are working closely together. It would look like Singapore, where handling risk is a key security and economic strategy at the national level.

Vietnam’s capacity to withstand shocks is greatly weakened by the fact that infrastructure is not well developed in most of the country, especially in places outside Ho Chi Minh City and Hai Phong. If the last mile is not well connected, logistics are split up and transport ways do not easily work together, it takes longer to respond during disruptions and costs more money. This aligns with the GMS economic corridor model, where multimodal infrastructure networks are designed not just for trade facilitation but to strengthen logistics performance and regional resilience [26]. We should therefore invest in railway-port-road connections, strong infrastructure cushioned to climate change and enhanced transport systems in leading economic zones. It is mentioned that poor coordination among regions makes countries more exposed to risks cascading during sudden changes. Besides helping with trade, infrastructure should be prepared for any surprises and easily change in case of a crisis. Through PPP, funds and precious expertise can be engaged, especially to modernize ports, build new cold-chain facilities and create inland logistics centers. They ought to be driven by studying vulnerability and fit in with the climate resilience goals included in the Vietnam Green Growth Strategy.

Since more than 98% of Vietnamese firms are considered SMEs, the stability of the economy hinges on their ability to endure shocks [39]. Nonetheless, SMEs usually do not have enough capital or tools to take steps to prevent risks. A separate fund for industrial upgrading, which provides soft loans, innovation vouchers and matching grants for SMEs’ risk reduction activities, should be created by policy leaders. Using these funds, one can upgrade technology, offer training to staff, prepare for future risks and handle business activity during emergencies. Cirera et al. [40] claim that structured finance for innovation makes it easier for middle-income countries to become more stable and survive crises. Companies can be offered tax breaks for making resilience-related changes, such as using technology to check risks, using several suppliers, or reviewing vulnerabilities. During hard times, giving help through exempting VAT payments and insurance subsidies provides SMEs with more flexibility. National programs offer support, for example, the SME Development Fund (SMEDF), but it is better if these instruments are decentralized.

Even though many Vietnamese industries are gathered in Nam Dinh and Bac Ninh, the use of risk management strategies in companies is not yet well coordinated. For macro policy, the best approach would be to encourage firms in the same area to team up for evaluating risks, forming joint responses and uniting resources for logistics. Industries like Regional Industry Resilience Plans in Japan and Smart Industrial Complexes in Korea have proved that controlling local clusters brings various financial and practical benefits in times of disaster [41]. In Vietnam, all governance sectors, with the help of VCCI and concerned association groups, ought to plan simulation exercises, group insurance programs and emergency stockpiles that match each cluster’s particular needs. Besides, placing public digital tools in these clusters allows smaller businesses to use them and reduce their expenses. Using national SCRM benchmarks in cluster activities could also make data collection and policy feedback better.

Recommendations for Vietnamese Firms

Managing risk management or ESG should no longer be seen by Vietnamese firms as optional. Such ideas should be integrated with the main operations and goals of the business. This is very important now since getting into global markets now depends more than ever on proper checks, compliance with environmental rules and easy testing for tracking. As an example, the EU's upcoming Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive will force companies involved in the supply chain to be accountable for environmental protection and social standards throughout the production process. Firms ought to set up teams in charge of sustainability or risk management and educate their staff on how to gather data and calculate environmental impacts related to products supplied by the firm. Besides satisfying global buyers, it helps companies create a positive and reliable brand reputation over years and protect their good name [42].

The adoption of digital solutions in Vietnam is not even and SMEs are having difficulty because of cost issues, low knowledge of digital technologies and doubts about their investment gains. To solve this, firms should treat digitalization as an important part of teaming up with other businesses. Thanks to industry-wide platforms, even small companies can get digital support at a low price [40]. Firms may use government-backed solutions from the National Digital Transformation Plan to 2025, but they should also take part in networks where digital infrastructure is created and maintained by groups of companies. If companies use cloud-based management, artificial intelligence for forecasting and digital simulations, they can notice changes immediately and cut their operational risks.

Vietnamese firms should get involved with forming and implementing changes in society’s infrastructure and regulations. The emphasis should be on building relationships with MOIT, MPI and other ministries, local governments, providers of logistics services and industry associations (for instance, VCCI and LEFASO). Meeting with competitors can create new avenues to sell goods, streamline logistics and strengthen the companies’ influence over rules made by regulators [43]. Because of their involvement in trade associations, firms managed to act more quickly in 2025 by joining forces in lobbying and organizing exports. The model should be improved: policy dialogue and cluster-level approaches should be considered useful ways for Vietnamese companies to reduce risks, not only ways of meeting the requirements. Such activities as joint rehearsals and international supplier partnerships help improve everyone’s security.

A lot of firms in Vietnam handle supply chain problems on an improvised basis. So, this brings about late replies, less profit and customer shifts over a longer period. So firms can outgrow this problem, planning should involve imagining different risks and preparing answers to them in advance [6]. It is necessary to have a wide range of suppliers and customers. Firms that count on only a few nations, or a specific input, are open to risks caused by geopolitical challenges and tariffs. Vietnamese firms should try getting supplies from CPTPP and EVFTA markets and adopt a strategy to source products from more than one supplier. It should now be standard for firms to choose their suppliers by considering risk and not just by comparing rates [44].

In this study, a comparative study on Supply Chain Risk Management (SCRM) practices in Vietnam and Singapore has been conducted, especially, with respect to governance systems, implementation of infrastructure and technology and industrial participation. Singapore exhibits an advanced and supposedly proactive SCRM strategy with well-established institutional coordination, digital port infrastructure and public-private partnerships - as can be seen in its response to COVID-19 via PSA International and the Supply Chain Resilience Initiative. The strategies put emphasis on the role of top-level policy integration and investment in technology in achieving national resilience.

Conversely, the SCRM environment in Vietnam is still highly fragmented, with irregularities in regulations, inconsistent technological use and the low participation of SMEs. The U.S tariff shock in 2025 highlighted the weaknesses in the export oriented industries in Vietnam and the importance of joint risk planning. Nonetheless, there is an emerging appreciation of the importance of supply chain resilience as a strategic policy issue, demonstrated by the policy momentum behind Decision No. 221/QD-TTg and the national digital transformation agenda.

In the future, governments and companies in Vietnam need to take a longer term and more systems perspective of risk management. On the policy level, the integration of SCRM in socio-economic planning and investment in infrastructure will be important. On the corporate side, compliance with ESG principles, further integration into the digital environment and involvement in risk pooling initiatives based on clusters can help increase resilience in an environment of ever more uncertainty in global trade.

In the end, the comparative studies of Singapore can provide substantial food of thought to the Vietnamese experience of building a more robust and competitive supply chain ecosystem. Vietnam can not only reduce the impacts of supply chain disruptions by addressing gaps in institutional capacity, digital readiness and firm-level preparedness but also use this to its advantage to enhance its own place in global value chains.

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