The present study deals with noun determination in English and Seereer. More specific research will questions concern the uses and functioning of the cardinal numbers in English and Seereer. This study will analyse the differences and the similarities of the cardinal numbers in the two languages. However, English and Seereer work differently in relation to these aspects even if some similarities can be noticed.
This study gets insights from Contrastive Approach. The strong version of CA claims that the differences between L1 and L2 structures results in negative transfer due to the transfer of old habits into new ones. As entitled, this study aims at contrasting the determiners in English and Seereer. Contrastive analysis consists of a parallel description of the languages concerned so as to reveal similarities and differences. The similarities and differences would show up in the formal and functional features characterizing the systems of the compared languages. In other terms, the stress will be placed on a systematic comparison of Seereer and English noun determination, to find out linguistic differences, which will eventually help us predict the difficulties Seereer learners may encounter in the process of learning English. Here we will be focusing on the cardinal numbers. A cardinal number is a number (such as 1, 5, 15) that is used in simple counting and that indicates how many elements there are in an assemblage [1].
Each type of word has its own Parts of Speech. In parallel, each word has its own function. English determiners are one of the most important parts of speech that describe nouns. The process of finding the correct right equivalents of Seereer determiners in English language by Seereer students when they learn English is considered a highly charged issue. In Seereer, the use of determiners depend to a large extend on the class in which the noun belongs. Nouns in Seereer are divided between nine classes with each the category of words matching with classes. Classes are divided into three groups: group (-o) and group (-a) which contain each two classes and group (-∅) which contains fives classes. The Seereer Siin nouns and its dependents are all marked. A second characterization found in Seereer is the presence of grammatical conditioned consonant mutation which does not exist in English. The grammatical function of consonant mutation varies. This mutating consonant is not as man y think limited typically in the initial. This phenomenon can occur at the same time in the initial, medial, and final consonant [2].
A contrastive analysis brings out the similarities and differences of languages. Such a work can be valuable in the sense that it provides a morphological background and practical information as reveal the limits of compatibilities and differences between the two languages. On the one hand that can make it easier for the teachers of the both languages to tackle their subjects on a better known ground, and on the other hand, for the students of Seereer or English to realize that in several aspects their languages share many things. A contrastive analysis of the determiners in Seereer and English will provide us with crucial insights into the very reasons why Seereer learners misuse some English determiners or make some mistakes.
A good study of grammatical items in a given language needs at a time, a look at other languages. Contrasting a widely spoken language with a minor language could help to popularize the minor language, which is the wish of any speaker. Determiner is an important grammatical element which grammarians and linguists extensively treated in English and other languages. In Seereer, however, a few studies have been done in that area in English. This, therefore, calls for more researches into the field to find the nature of the determiner in Seereer and English, their system and formation processes. This research therefore, is a starting point, to develop languages that are not developed.
The English numeral determiners
The numeral is part of the English grammatical forms intervening in noun determination. Numerals represent the cardinal numbers used for counting. They also include specialized number designations such as pair for two or dozen twelve. [3]
Numbering in English is composed of simple numbers and compound numbers which present some irregularities based on the level of numbering we are. The numeral develops some phonic and graphic features independently from each other. English uses different forms of words for its cardinal adjectives from one (1) to ninety (90). The counting from the numeral one to twelve does not show some similarities which can be interpreted as specific endings, they are written in different forms:
One 1 seven 7
Two 2 eight 8
Three 3 nine 9
Four 4 ten 10
Five 5 eleven 11
Six 6 twelve 12
From thirteen to nineteen, numbers about ten present a certain regularity illustrated by the similar endings “teen” which characterize them. We add the suffix –teen to three, four, five, six, seven, eight and nine. These numerals are formed by summation identifying the particle before “teen” as the added number and the suffix “teen” standing for ten. However the final vowel of three (-ree) and the final syllable of five (-ve) alter into –ir and –if. While multiple numbers of ten (10) are formed from twelve to nineteen by clearing out the suffix –een of these numbers adding the vowel –y to each of them. But the syllable -our-of fourteen changes into -or-in forty:
Thirteen 13 sixteen 17
Fourteen 14 seventeen 18
Fifteen 15 eighteen 19
Nineteen 16
From number twenty, the series of numerals formed by multiplication appear. But in between, we still have the same process of numbering by summation with compound numerals formed by juxtaposition:
Formed by multiplication formed by juxtaposition
Twenty 20 twenty one 21
twenty two 22 Thirty 30
thirty four 34 thirty five 35
Forty 40 forty six 46
forty seven 47 Fifty 50
fifty eight 58 fifty nine 59
Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals express quantity:
One bird in the hand is worth two in the bushes
Two animals volunteer to lead the rebellion against Mr. Jones
We have seven days in a week
English creates new word from hundred, thousand, million and billion. To count from these numbers, we put only the nine first cardinal numbers before them. They are also written in two separate words.
E.g: one hundred, six thousand, five million, seven billion and so on.
When unities are added to hundred, thousand, million they are always preceded by and except in American English [4]
E.g. Two hundred and fifty (American: two hundred fifty) =250
Two thousand and one=2,001
Three million and twenty-five=3,000,025
Hundred, thousand and million are invariable when they are multiplied by a precise number or preceded by several, a few, many etc.
E.g. Five hundred pounds Three thousand years, Four million people, several hundred people
These adjectives take the plural markers when they are followed by of for examples: Hundreds of times, thousands of birds, millions of stars and so on
Some cardinal adjectives take the plural marker often when they are considered as nouns:
Examples: the thirties (the 1930ies), to be or go on fours
The Seereer numeral determiners
Numeral adjectives in Seereer function syntactically like all other adjectives, but exhibit irregular inflection patterns. In addition to initial consonant alternations, numerals exhibit vowel alternations in different noun classes. [5] Numerals take regular noun class prefixes and initial consonant mutations, but the words for numerals up to five show three different vowel configurations; one when used in isolation as a counting word or with the k plural noun class, one when used with the person /w/ or diminutive /fn/noun class, and one for all other plural classes. As Seereer numerals are a biquinary system, this means that the last element of the numeral phrase is conditioned by the class of the noun:
Number isolation or k class w or fn class Other noun classes
1 leng leng -leng
2 ƭik ɗik -ƭak
3 tadik daduk -tadak
4 naxik naxu(k) -naxak / -naak
5 ƥetik ɓetuk -ƥetak
6 ƥetuu fo leng ɓetuu fo leng -ƥetaa fo leng
7 ƥetuu ƭik ɓetuu ɗik -ƥetaa ƭak
8 ƥetuu tadik ɓetuu daduk -ƥetaa tadak
9 ƥetuu naxik ɓetuu naxuk -ƥetaa naxak
Seereer language has on its disposal two kind of numerals intervening in noun determination: the cardinal and the ordinal.The Cardinal adjectives consist of two forms in Seereer: the abstract forms and the concrete forms. [6]
The Cadinals
Forms of Abstract Numbers
The abstract form adjectives are employed with an arithmetic value. And they become concrete numbers when they are used to count some named objects. In this case they function as adjectives and undergo some morphophonological transformation according to the agreement with nominal classes of the counted nouns. [7] To count from one (1) to thousand, Seereer Siin uses only eight (8) forms of words in its vocabulary. It forms the other words by addition, composition or multiplication from these eight words.
The first five abstract numbers are written in different forms; there are:
Simple Numbers:
Leng one
Ƭik two
Tadik three
Nahik four
ƥetik five
And all the other numbers from ƥetik are formed by adding the first four numbers until xarbaxay (ten).
Examples:
Compound Numbers:
Ɓetaafoleng (or ƥetik fo leng) “six”
Ɓetaaƭaq (or ƥetik fo ƭik) “seven”
Ɓetaatadaq (or ƥetik fo tadik) “eight”
Ɓetaanahaq (or ƥetik fo nahik) “nine
We get the word formation of ɓetaafoleng, ɓetaaƭaq, ɓetaatadaq and ɓetaanahaq by contraction because of the morphological transformation of the language. [8]
Number ten (10) xarɓaxay is part of the simple numbers since it does not take either fo as a connector or another number in juxtaposition. The number xarbaxay is used by addition to form numbers from eleven (11) until nineteen.
Examples:
11: xarbaxay fo leng “ten and one”
12: xarbaxay foƭik “ten and two”
13: xarbaxay fo tadik “ten and three”
14: xarbaxay fo nahik “ten and four”
15: xarbaxay foƥetik “ten and five”
16: xarbaxay foɓetaafoleng “ten and six”
17: xarbaxay foɓetaaƭaq “ten and seven”
18: xarbaxay foɓetaatadaq “ten and eight”
19: Xarbaxay foɓetaanahaq “ten and nine”
Numbers from eleven (11) to nineteen are formed from the basic form of the number xarbaxay (ten) plus the numbers from one to nine in Seereer. [9]
Qarɓeen is also formed from the basic form of xarbaxay. But here the word formation of the number goes with multiplication of ten (10) by two (2) or literary we can say “two ten”. Therefore all the multiples of ten in Seereer Siin are formed by multiplication until ninety (90). However by multiplication the word xarbaxay changes morphologically into qarɓeen in plural.
The series of normal numbering is formed by summation with the coordinating connector fo.
Ten and so normal numbering
Qarɓeen ƭik 20 twenty qarɓeen ƭik fo leng twenty-one 21 Qarɓeen tadik 30 thirty qarɓeen ƭik fo ƭik twenty-two 22
Qarɓeen nahik 40 fourty qarɓeen ƭik fo tadik twenty-three 23
Qarɓeen ƥetik 50 fifty qarɓeen ƭik fo nahik twenty-four 24
The number teemeed“hundred” constitutes the seventh word. It can combine at the same time with unities and reduce like the other multiples of ten.
For instance:
105: teemeed foƥetik; 150: teemeed fo qarɓeen ƥetik, 300: teemeed tadik; 628: teemeed ɓetuufaleng fo qarɓeen tik fo ɓetaatadaq
The number juni (thousand) is the eighth word and it becomes cuniin plural in its multiple forms. Here are some examples:
2000: cuni ƭik (two thousand)
5000: cuni ƥetik (five thousand)
Therefore to count from one (1) to thousand (1000), Seereer uses eight words in its vocabulary such as leng(one), ƭik(two), tadik(three), nahik(four), ƥetik(five), xarɓaxay(10), teemeed(100) andjuni (1000).
Forms of Concrete Numbers
They are called concrete numbers because they are used to count objects. According to the nominal classes of the counted objects, these nouns undergo some consonant and vocalic harmonization except the form of the first number leng(one). But tik, tadik, nahik, ƥetik and xarɓaxay know some transformations with nouns of the different classes such as (a1), (o1), (o2) and (Ø1).
These consonant and vocalic harmonization for the a1 class nouns are presented as follows:
with a cek “a hen”, ƭik becomes a ƭak in a cek a ƭak “two hen”
with a koy “a monkey”, tadik becomes a tadak in a koy a tadak “three monkeys”
with a teex “a stick”, nahik alters into a nahakin a teex a nahak “four sticks”
ƥetik changes into a ɓetak with the noun piis “a line” in a piis a ɓetak “five lines”.
The nouns of the (O1) classes undergo some transformations with the numbers ƭik, tadik, nahik, and ƥetik to become ɗik, daduk, nahuk, and ɓetuk.
Here are some more examples:
O koor →goor dik “two men”
O tew→rew daduk “two women”
O tam→ram nahuk “four blind men”
O kaynaak→gaynaak ɓetuk “five shepherds”
The nouns of the (O2) class go with xa ƭaq, xa tadaq, xa nahak, and xa ƥetak for the numbers tik, ƭadik, nahik and ƥetik.
Examples:
O hiid “a year”→xa kiid xa ƭak “two years”
O faam “donkey”→xa paam xa tadaq “three donkeys”
O fus “a spot”→xa pus xa nahaq “four spots”
O qol “field”→xa qol xa ƥetak “three fields”
Nouns of the (Ø1)class have the same transformation with the nouns of the (A1) class.
However when the number ƥetik is associated with leng, tik, tadik, and nahik to form the word six, seven, eight and nine, it knows some morphological transformations. It becomes ɓetuu- with the (O1) class nouns and ɓetaa-with the nouns of all the other classes.
Example 1:
o kiin “a person”→wiin ɓetuutik “seven persons”
Example2:
o hiid “a year” →xa kiid ɓetaatadaq “eight years”
The following numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5 go with the prefix markers of the noun they determine. They go through consonant and vocalic alternation and present their own variations in forms.
A cek a ƭak two chickens naak ƭik two cows
Wiin daduk three persons a cek a tadak three chickens
The prefix markers do not appear before the numerals from six to nine 6…..9. the numerals formed by multiplication and others such as ten (10), one hundred (100) and one thousand (1000) would admit two different forms of determination:
prefix marker+noun +numeral determiner
paal nahik: Æ+noun +numeral determiner three sheep
xa ɓox xarɓaxay: prefix marker+ noun + numeral tdeterminer ten dogs
a cek teemed: prefix marker + noun+ numeral determiner hundred chickens
This form does not exclude the possibility to use a suffix marker standing for the definite form of the noun.
Ex: xa ɓox xarɓaxay axe the ten dogs
numeral determiner + no + noun
The numeral ten (10), hundred (100), thousand (1000) and (qarɓeen) are used with the connector “no” and do not take prefix and suffix markers. The cardinal precedes the noun to which it is linked by the connecting syntagm:
Teemed no win one hundred persons
Xaɓaxay no win ten persons
Juni no win one thousand persons
The numeral 1000 juni undergoes mutation when appropriate: rew juni 1000 women', pañiig cune' '1000 elephants'. All other numbers are invariant:
10: xarɓaxay
20: xarɓaxay ƭik
etc.
100: teemeed
200: teemeed ƭik
etc.
However, the number in the ones digit always shows the appropriate agreement, even in higher numbers.
Xa ƥox teemeed ƭik fo xarɓaxay ƥetik fo xa tadak '253 dogs'
The Contrastive analysis
The theoretical foundations for what became known as the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis were formulated in Lado's Linguistics Across Cultures. In this book, Lado claimed that "those elements which are similar to the learner's native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult". The contrastive study of the morphological system of English and Seereer‘s aim is to show the similarities and differences between the two languages and establish a close morphological and linguistic relation between them.
Similar Features
Numerals present similarities in English and in Seereer determination. Seeereer and English are both composed of simple and compound numbers which present some irregularities based both on the level of numbering. Both languages are provided with ordinal and cardinal determiners. The seereer and English language are common in the sense that they share these three procedures in forming numeral determiners. They would both form numeral either by summation, juxtaposition or multiplication.
Simple Numbers
Seereer Simple Numbers:
Leng one
ɗik two
Tadik three
Nahik four
ƥetik five
English Simple Numbers
The counting from the numeral one to twelve does not show some similarities which can be interpreted as specific endings:
One 1 seven 7
Two 2 eight 8
Three 3 nine 9
Four 4 ten 10
Five 5 eleven 11
Six 6 twelve 12
Compound Numbers
Seereer Numbers Formed by Juxtaposition
Created by summation are formed by juxtaposition except number six with which we use the coordinating connector “fo”:
ɓetaa fo leng six
ɓetaa taq seven
5+2
ɓeta tadaq eight
5+3
ɓetaa nahaq nine
5+4
English numbers formed by juxtaposition:
Twenty one 21
20+1
Twenty two 22
20+2
Thirty five 35
20+5
Forty six 46
40+6
Simple numerals develop features independently from each other at a certain level. Others would take some specific ending indicating the level of counting in which we are. The Seereer numeral “qarɓeen” and the English suffix “teen” show that the counting is still about ten. The English suffix “ty” is used to form numerals by multiplication. In between these two processes of forming numerals is that of juxtaposition which combine two numerals. Ex: beta nahaq (9) which means 5+4 /twenty (22) which means 20+2. English and seereer share these three forms of numerals even if the shift from simple to compound numerals does not occur at the same level.
Different Features
The dissimilarities between English and Seereer are greater than the similarities in the contrastive study of the two languages. It is here that we can observe that both of them are operating according to their realities. [10] The first difference is how nouns are determined from singular to plural with regard to transformations which occur in the nouns and the determiner morphology. In English the morpheme {-s} is mostly added at the final position in the plural form whereas in Seereer the plural manifestates through a change of an alternation of consonant:
mbin leg = pin ƭik
One house = two houses
In Seereer from singular to plural we have a change of consonant mb → p whereas in English we just add an {-s}to the singular form to have the plural house→ houses.
Seereer-Siin and English use different forms of cardinal numeral adjectives. To count from one(1) to thousand (1000), Seereer uses eight words such as leng(1),tik(two),tadik(three),nahik(4),ƥetik(5),xarɓaxay(ten),teemed(hundred) andjuni (thousand). The other numbers are formed either by addition or multiplication of these different numbers. These adjectives change forms when they determine a concrete noun except the first word “leng” whereas the forms of the English ones are presented in different ways. The cardinal adjectives in English maintain their forms even if they are used to determine a noun.
Examples:
Seereer-Siin: ƭik→ a cek a ƭak (two hens) ƭik →ƭak
English: two→two chikens
English reacts on the plural mark by adding an “s/es” to the singular form or by vocalic transformation applied in a certain category of words which present irregularities, but the form of the numeral determiner remains invariable. [11] Seereer nouns are changing from singular to plural through the process of consonant alternation affecting the noun as well as the determiner
In general because of word order consideration cardinal numbers are complicated for Seereer learners of English:
English Seereer
One man o koor o leng [3]
three men goor daduk
In English the cardinal number always comes before the noun, in seereer it is the contraray. We have three brothers.
The Seereer learners will often use this order:
I njega maag daduk
*We- have- brother –three
This causes problems for the Seereer learners. Otherwise, however, the Seereer cardinal may come before the noun in certain constructions:
Daduk no wiin a mbare
Three –of- people- are killed
Teemed no wiin
One hundred people
Numbers from two up have noun heads in Seereer as in English:
Pind nahik
Four houses
In Seereer, the use of determiners depend to a large extend on the class in which the noun belongs. In most cases, consonant alternation is also required from singular to plural and the plural forms are visibly in the noun as well as the determiners morphology. [12]
The fundamental difference between the English and Seereer determinative modality is in the fact that the position of the noun in front of the determiner is the reversal in the English system. The English determiner is in front of the noun and operates in this position for demonstrative, possessive, interrogative and numeral determination. The Seereer determiners can be put either before or after the noun. [13]
After this study, we have seen that Seereer and English use different forms of cardinal numeral adjectives. Seereer adjectives change forms when they determine a concrete noun except the first word “leng” whereas the forms of the English ones maintain their forms even if they are used to determine a noun. The fundamental difference between the English and Seereer determinative modality is in the fact that the position of the noun in front of the determiner is the reversal in the English system. The English determiner is in front of the noun and operates in this position for numeral determination. The permissible arrangement of determiner with relation to the noun is quite flexible in Seeereer. The Seereer determiners can be put either before or after the noun. The determiners appear after the noun in normal situation but they can precede the noun for emphatic purposes. In English the place of the determiner follows a certain order.
We can say that, determiners are a common linguistic feature both in English and Seeereer. To some teachers, it may be hard to teach, but determiners are the basic knowledge that every learners need to know before studying further. Although there are still some unclear concept, a contrastive analysis of English and Seereer determiners helps to shed some light into the way the two languages are working. We hope that with this study, we have contributed something to helping the teachers shape a perfect way of teaching determiners in high schools
This research is hopefully useful for both English learners and teachers, whose mother tongue is Seereer.
For one thing, by knowing that English department students tend to make the determiner errors, both English learners and teachers are expected to pay more attention to those particular structures. Moreover, they are also expected to become more aware that those English determiners are different from Seereer one and should not be replaced by them whatsoever. At the same time, it is hoped that by having this paper, the English teachers may be constantly reminded that these English determiners tend to generate problems on the students’ performance, and therefore, they can develop the lessons by concentrating on those problematic structures
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